THE MYSTERY OF MALANGA: POSSIBLE ROLES OF XANTHOSOMA VIOLACEUM IN ANCIENT MAYA DIET, CULTURE, AND AGRICULTURE by THERESA HEINDEL B.A. University of Wisconsin – Madison, 2010 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Colorado – Boulder in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Anthropology 2012 This thesis entitled: The Mystery of Malanga: Possible Roles of Xanthosoma violaceum in Ancient Maya Diet, Culture, and Agriculture written by Theresa Heindel has been approved for the Department of Anthropology Payson Sheets Gerardo Gutiérrez Date Dec. 7th, 2012 The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories, and we Find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards Of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline. iii Heindel, Theresa (M.A., Anthropology) The Mystery of Malanga: Possible Roles of Xanthosoma violaceum in Ancient Maya Diet, Culture, and Agriculture Thesis directed by Professor Payson Sheets ABSTRACT Until the mid-20th century, Ancient Maya agriculture has historically been discussed almost exclusively in terms of maize cultivation and the use of swidden methods. More recent ideas about alternative subsistence strategies and crops that could either supplement swidden or introduce more intensive maize agriculture, however, have led to more questions than answers. While the possibility of root crop utilization by the ancient Maya had been suggested by scholars as early as the 1960s, serious consideration has only occurred since the recent discovery of a Classic period manioc (root crop) field near the ancient village of Cerén in El Salvador by Dr. Payson Sheets. The discovery of such intensive manioc cultivation, along with the sophistication and extent of manioc use, suggests that other root crops may also have been important components of Maya agriculture. The little-known root crop that today is commonly referred to throughout Central America as “malanga” (Xanthosoma violaceum) was uncovered in previous investigations (beginning in the 1970s) at the site of Cerén, which included the excavation of a household garden containing malanga plants. Through the use of ethnography, ethnohistory, iconography, and archaeology, I have compiled a summation of malanga’s possible role(s) in ancient Maya agriculture, as well as how to continue research on the plant. Ethnographic research, for instance, has led to the argument that malanga was most likely processed in a similar way to manioc, which suggests iv that use-wear analyses may provide evidence for malanga use when less durable indicators like starch grains are lacking. Ethnohistoric evidence has been instrumental in providing ideas for how root crops like malanga may have been used, such as for famine food or as a supplementary crop, while iconography has indicated that malanga may have had religious importance as well. Lastly, the use of archaeology, in combination with the above, suggests that malanga would most likely have been grown in swampy, inundated soils in a kitchen garden setting. Through my research on malanga, I believe I have provided new and important information on the ancient Maya diet and on how to continue searching for a previously unknown crop. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank, first and foremost, my advisor Dr. Payson Sheets. He has been with me every step of the way and, without his thoughtful suggestions and constant help, malanga would still be unknown and this thesis would never have been written. A big thank you should be extended to David Lentz as well, who was kind enough to lend me his botanical expertise. Certainly, without him, I wouldn’t know the difference between taro and malanga. I would also not have been able write a large portion of this thesis without the aid of Gerardo Gutiérrez and his impressive ethnohistoric document collections and Inga Calvin’s iconographic assistance. In addition, I need to give a huge thank you to both Dr. Gutiérrez and Dr. Arthur Joyce for taking the time to read previous drafts of this thesis and providing invaluable advice. The help and companionship during my work in the field of Chris Dixon, Alexandria Halmbacher, and Céline Lamb is also much appreciated. It is important that I thank everyone else who aided me in the majority of my research in El Salvador as well, including the great and hard-working people at the Museo Nacional David J. Guzman – principally Roberto Gallardo, Lily Limas, and Jorge Rubio. In addition, without the help of Elena and Julio Garcia-Muñoz, Jesus Franco, Salvador Quintanilla, Alejandro Quintanilla, Amicar Najarro, and Oswaldo Guardado, I would know nothing about modern-day uses of “malanga.” Finally, I would like to thank everyone in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Colorado – Boulder for supporting me and my research and, in particular, the wonderful Valerie, Lesa, and Karen, who keep the department together. vi CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….……..1 A. History of Mesoamerica and the Ancient Maya……………………………….2 B. The Maya Environmental Context………………………………......................6 The Pacific Coast………………………………………………………….7 The Highlands……………….…………………………………………….8 The Lowlands……………………………………………………………...8 C. A History of Cerén and the Surrounding Area………………………………..10 The Climate, Environment and Volcanic History………………………..10 Social and Cultural History………………………………………………12 Archaeology……………………………………………………………...14 2. A HISTORY OF MAYA AGRICULTURAL STUDIES……………………………….18 A. Prior to the 1960s……………………………………………………………..18 Diego de Landa and the Relacíon de las cosas de Yucatán……………...18 John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood: Incidents of Travel in Yucatán……………………………………..................................19 Early Archaeologists: Swidden Agriculture……………………………..20 B. A New Agricultural Studies Paradigm………………………………..............21 Changing Demographic Estimates……………………………………….21 Different Agricultural Techniques……………………………………….23 High Performance Milpa…………….…………………………...23 Terracing………………………………………………................24 Raised Fields……………………………......................................25 Artificial Rain Forest…………………………………………….26 Kitchen Garden…………………………………………………..26 Arboriculture……………………………………………………..27 The Search for Different Crops…………………………………………..28 vii 3. NEW WORLD CROPS……………………………………………………………….…31 A. Brief Background on the Andes, Amazonia, and the Caribbean……………..31 B. Common New World Root Crops…………………….………………………34 Potato…………………………………………………………………….35 Arrowroot……………………………………………………………...…36 Sweet Potato……………………...............................................................37 Jícama………............................................................................................38 Manioc………...........................................................................................39 Malanga (Xanthosoma violaceum)………...................…….....................40 C. A Note on Taro………..........................……....................................................43 4. STUDIES ON NEW WORLD CROPS……………………………………...…………..45 A. Ethnography…………..……………………………………………………....46 South America………………………………...........................................46 Central America………………………………………………………….47 B. Ethnohistory……….……………………………………………..…………...49 The Relaciones Geográficas del Siglo XVI……………………...…….....50 Sumario de la Natural Historia de las Indias……………………………63 Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions that Today Live Among the Indians Native to this New Spain………………………………………....65 Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España……………………………………...…………………….67 C. Iconography…………………………………………………………………...69 D. Archaeology…………………………..............................................................72 South America...........................................................................................72 The Intermediate Area.....................................………..............................74 Mesoamerica.....……….............................................................................75 5. ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS OF MALANGA……………………………………………………………………………….77 A. Cuello, Belize…………………………………………………………………77 Site Context………………………………...…………………………….77 Malanga………...………………………….…………………………….78 viii B. Cerén, El Salvador…………………….…………….…….…..........................79 Archaeological Context…………………….........……….……………...79 C. Current Malanga Research……………………………………………............80 6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………….85 A. Edaphic Requirements………………………………………………………..85 Maize and Manioc………………………………………………………..85 Malanga Cultivation………………………………….……………….…86 B. Ancient Malanga Cultivation in the Archaeological Record……………...….87 The Petén and Alluvial Watercourses………………………....................87 Durable Indicators………………………………………………..............89 C. Malanga as a Crop……………………………………………………………96 Staple Crop……………………………………………………………….96 Supplemental Crop……………………...........…......................................96 Famine Food…………………….........................……………………….96 D. Conclusions…………………………………………………………………...97 REFERENCES………..........................................................................………………………..100 ix TABLES Table 1. Roots mentioned as food in the Relaciones Geográficas………………………..………...60-62 2. Plant 1.508 RA21-179 Measurements…………………………………...……….…………...81 x FIGURES Figure 1. Mesoamerica…………………………………...…………………………………..……...2 2. The Maya Area……………………………………………………...…….………………3 3. Mesoamerican Regions…………………………………………..………………………..4