Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Exploring the Roles of Women in Indigenous Businesses Based on Customary Land: Case Studies from Papua New Guinea A thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University New Zealand Hennah Steven 2020 COPYRIGHT ©Hennah Steven, 2020 Permission is given for a copy to be utilised by an individual for the purposes of research and individual study only. The thesis may not be reproduced in part or in its entirety without written permission of the author. ii DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my family. A special feeling of gratitude to my humble parents, Steven Fezarime Auso and Amise Aperi whose simple way of life and the values they lived by shaped mine. Their dedication to church and continual prayers have resulted in this achievement. My sister Joki Simon Posou and bestie Busunae Posou whose various support, words of encouragement and push for tenacity still ring in my ears. My elder brother Bataso Steven and younger siblings who have been with me through thick and thin, thank you. To each of you: this dissertation is your success story. I also dedicate this dissertation to my wonderful daughter Victoria who has been a large part of this journey. You sacrificed a lot of your childhood to support mummy. One day you will look back and understand why mummy stayed up late at night and sometimes did not attend your school programs. Thank you for being patient and being there for me throughout the entire doctorate program. You have been my best cheerleader. Tenk Yu Tru! (Thank you very much) iii ABSTRACT The purpose of this research is to explore how indigenous enterprises based on customary land in Papua New Guinea (PNG) work to empower women. This research is part of the Royal Society of New Zealand Marsden project “The land has eyes and teeth”: customary landowners’ entanglements with economic systems in the Pacific that draws upon the notion of land as ‘assemblage’ (Li, 2014). The study brought in a gendered dimension to the project to understand how economic engagements on customary land involve and benefit women. Three examples of small-medium indigenous enterprises from PNG were selected as case studies. Utilising the Pacific Vanua and Tali magimagi influenced research framework, the involvement of women in these cases was examined to understand how they contributed to and benefited from small business engagements on customary land. From executing a mixture of tok stori/stori sessions (storytelling, conversations), semi- structured interviews and participatory observation, the study revealed the significance of indigenous social values and practices that were of critical support to business sustainability on customary land. Women played an important role as the ‘social glue’ within the businesses, maintaining the local value of wanbel to keep social cohesion and harmony within the businesses, communities and, with associated people. This was seen through their work on the maintenance of wellbeing for workers, relatives and communities; meeting socio- cultural obligations and responsibilities, and allowing spiritual values and beliefs to influence their actions and decisions. The desire to maintain these social values influenced the way they behaved. They also played direct business roles as co- managers, financial managers, workers and producers that helped to support business viability and retain customary land for the benefit of the family, clan and community. Further, women benefited from these businesses in various ways including gaining recognition and status in their households and communities. iv The study shows that customary land ownership is not a barrier to economic development, as widely held perceptions would suggest, rather it is an asset that can facilitate different forms of local development for people and communities in PNG and in the wider Pacific. There is a need to understand economic-centred intentions alongside the social-cultural interests of women to drive context-specific development. A culturally appropriate gender-sensitive framework is proposed in this thesis as an alternative development framework that can guide the work of government policymakers, development agencies and donors to formulate inclusive development programmes that also support women’s other interests in PNG and the Pacific. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This PhD journey began and ended with the leadership of the ever-faithful God. Thank you, Yahweh, for opening doors that no man was able to shut and for seeing me through. Honour and Glory be unto You. This thesis would not eventuate if it was not for the generosity of people connected to the three business case studies. I owe my sincere gratitude to the business owners and families of Blue Corner Farm Limited, PNG Beekeeping Supplies and Clem’s Place. Steven Pupune, Tella Loie and Clement Anton allowed me into their villages, homes, and businesses. They fed me, allowed me to move freely and learn from their daily activities. The women of the businesses: Margaret Pupune, Anita Pupune, Paula Pupune, Damaris Loie, Sophie Clement, Dana Clement and Rosella Clement, allowed me to listen to their stories and learn from their experiences that gave me a greater awareness of women’s importance and place in society. Their experiences confirm that the success of a business based on customary land also depends on women’s ‘backstage roles’ that need support and wider recognition. This thesis is written in recognition of each of them. I also acknowledge and thank the workers of the businesses and community members for participating in this study. Thank you, Blue Corner Farm, PNG Beekeeping Supplies and Clem’s Place for making this study possible. This research has benefited greatly from the guidance and valuable contributions of my supervisory, advisory and project team members. I would like to especially thank Professor Glenn Banks and Professor Regina Scheyvens who were more than generous to share their expertise and precious time. This would not be possible without their expert assistance. The hours of reflecting, reading, encouraging, and most of all patience throughout the entire process have contributed to this dissertation. I cannot fully comprehend the efforts they have put into making this thesis readable and especially the extra support they provided throughout. They give and give and continued to give, and for all of that, I will be sincerely and forever grateful. Not only are they my supervisors but they have become a wonderful part of the wantoks I have vi here in Palmerston North, New Zealand (NZ). My sincerest gratitude for all of their time in sharing their expert advice that has resulted in the completion of this PhD thesis. I am grateful for words of encouragement and experiences Dr Litea Meo- Sewabu shared with me. I thank Suliasi Vunibola for his friendship and brotherly support, and for being a wonderful student colleague. We shared and learnt a lot from each other. The times we spent talking about our theses and sharing information has resulted in completing this PhD journey. Sincere gratitude to the Marsden project advisory team whose valuable guidance and contributions led to the successful completion of the main project within which my research sits. I have benefitted from discussions with Gina Koczberski, George Curry and Reuben Wanobo. Sincere thanks to Tracey Hansen for proofreading this thesis! I would like to acknowledge the institutions that made this PhD possible. My sincere gratitude to the Royal Society of New Zealand’s Marsden Fund for funding ‘The Land has Eyes and Teeth’ project which my PhD research is part of. I sincerely thank Massey University’s Institute of Development Studies for the scholarship and various forms of support I have received. I also acknowledge and thank Pacific Adventist University Administration, both past and present, for part sponsorship of my study. I know that the staff, family and friends at Pacific Adventist University have kept me and my daughter in their prayers for the duration of our stay in NZ. Sincere gratitude. I thank the key informants from various organisations and businesses in PNG including the Department of Lands and Physical Planning, National Development Bank, Women’s Business Resource Centre, Fresh Produce Development Agency, National Research Institute, Jabez Business Incubation Centre, Coffee Industry Corporation and New Ireland Provincial Department of Lands & Physical Planning and Cathy’s Eel Sanctuary. I benefitted from insights shared by Andrew Simeon, Lalen Simeon, Logea Nao, Tumae Gure’ahafo, Wayne Powae, Linda Voyorite, Maria Huaniangre, Thaiya, Dinah Minol, Dr Bernard Minol and Gregory Hiob. The staff of National Fisheries College (NFC) in Kavieng were instrumental in providing a safe place to stay and do research in Kavieng. Mr Jeff Kinch, Mrs Sylvia Kinch, Mrs Maria Huaniangre, Mr Peter Minimulu and NFC staff, their friendship and hospitality is acknowledged and highly vii appreciated. The Baueluas of Matla community in Kavieng provided food, took me to their home and treated me like a family member. I thank all of the Kavieng folks for making my stay and research a safe and memorable one. I acknowledge friends from New Zealand who have become family to me and Victoria during our study period. Dr Tracie Mafile’o and Taupo Tani made mine and Victoria’s transition into NZ easy. I thank these lovely couple and their wonderful boys Tuvia and Timon for allowing us to stay initially at their place before we moved into the city. I also acknowledge Diane’e Nomino and Paul Titus for providing that homely feeling when we first saw them and their children in Palmerston North.