Andalucía flamenca: Music, Regionalism and Identity in Southern Spain A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnomusicology by Matthew Machin-Autenrieth © Matthew Machin-Autenrieth 2013 Tables of Contents Table of Contents i List of Plates iv List of Examples iv List of Figures v Conventions vi Acknowledgments viii Abstract x Introduction 1 PART ONE Chapter One: An Overview of Flamenco 6 The Identities of Flamenco 9 The Materials of Flamenco 12 The Geographies of Flamenco 19 The Scholars of Flamenco 25 Chapter Two: Music, Regionalism and Political Geography 36 Political Geography and Music 37 Region, Regionalisation and Regionalism 43 Regionalism and Music 51 The Theoretical Framework 61 Conclusions 68 Chapter Three: Methodology 70 Virtual Ethnography: In Theory 70 Virtual Ethnography: In Practice 79 Field Research in Granada 86 Conclusions 97 Chapter Four: Regionalism, Nationalism and Ethnicity in the History of Flamenco 98 Flamenco and the Emergence of Andalucismo (1800s–1900s) 99 Flamenco and the Nation: Commercialisation, Salvation and Antiflamenquismo 113 Flamenco and Political Andalucismo (1900–1936) 117 Flamenco during the Franco Regime (1939–75) 122 Flamenco since the Transition to Democracy (1975 onwards) 127 Conclusions 131 i Chapter Five: Flamenco for Andalusia, Flamenco for Humanity 133 Flamenco for Andalusia: The Statute of Autonomy 134 Flamenco for Humanity: Intangible Cultural Heritage 141 The Regionalisation of Flamenco in Andalusia 152 Conclusions 169 PART TWO Chapter Six: ¿Flamenco algo nuestro? The Platform for East Andalusia 172 Ideology, History and Culture 173 Flamenco ‘no es algo nuestro’ 185 Flamenco ‘¡es algo nuestro!’ 198 Conclusions 209 Chapter Seven: Local Responses to Institutional Measures 212 Institutional Support for Flamenco in Granada 213 The Reception of Institutional Intervention in Granada 219 Responses to the UNESCO Declaration and the Statute of Autonomy 228 Marginalisation in Granada 236 Conclusions 242 Chapter Eight: Granaína flamenca: Localism in the Flamenco Scene of Granada 244 The Platería 246 The Zambra 263 Conclusions 277 Chapter Nine: The Local and the Regional in Flamenco Guitar Style 280 Local Guitar Style: Melchor Córdoba Santiago 281 Regional Guitar Style: Rafael Hoces Ortega 297 Institutional Ideology and the Unification of Style 312 Conclusions 317 Conclusions 320 Regionalism and Political Geography 321 Contesting Regionalism 323 Localism 324 Future Research 326 ii Appendix A: Glossary of Spanish Terms 328 Appendix B: Abbreviations 341 Appendix C: List of Informants 342 Appendix D: Online Questionnaire 344 Appendix E: Introductory Email to the Plataforma por Andalucía Oriental 346 Appendix F: Historical Timeline 349 Bibliography 351 Principal Bibliography 351 Supplementary Bibliography 369 iii List of Plates Plate 4.1: A plaque devoted to Demófilo in Seville 110 Plate 5.1: Promotional material for Flamenco Soy 144 Plate 5.2: UNESCO exhibition sign at the IAF 151 Plate 8.1: The front of the Platería 246 Plate 8.2: Salón del cante 247 Plate 8.3: View of the Alhambra from the Platería 248 Plate 8.4: The Platería’s logo 252 Plate 8.5: Ceramic plates at the Platería 254 Plate 8.6: Original poster for the Concurso del Cante Jondo 255 Plate 8.7: People in the museum at the Platería 255 Plate 8.8: Caves in Sacromonte 263 Plate 8.9: The Zambra de María ‘la Canastera’ (and museum) 263 Plate 8.10: Inside the cave 264 Plate 8.11: Dancers in the cave 269 Plate 8.12: Curro Albaicín outside his cave 275 Plate 9.1: Melchor performing 292 Plate 9.2: Rafa in his teaching studio 298 Plate 9.3: Right-hand position 300 Plate 9.4: Students in the conservatoire 309 List of Examples Example 1.1: The Andalusian mode 13 Example 1.2: The Andalusian cadence 13 Example 1.3: The compás for soleá 14 Example 1.4: The compás for soleá as performed on the guitar 14 Example 1.5: The compás for seguiriya 14 Example 1.6: A llamada for soleá 15 Example 1.7: A falseta for soleá 16 Example 1.8: The rasgueado in a seguiriya 19 Example 9.1: The rhythm of the cachucha 283 Example 9.2: The rhythm of the mosca 284 Example 9.3: The entrance melody for the mosca 284 Example 9.4: Abanico strum 287 Example 9.5: Alzapúa technique 288 Example 9.6: Introduction to tangos 290 Example 9.7: Opening segment to a taranta 291 Example 9.8: Picado exercise 300 Example 9.9: Arpeggio falseta for tangos or bulerías 300 Example 9.10: The rhythm/chordal structure for tangos de Granada 304 iv List of Figures Figure 1.1: Map of Spain 7 Figure 1.2: The Eight Provinces of Andalusia 8 Figure 1.3: The flamenco ‘triangles’ 21 Figure 1.4: Map showing the geographical distribution of palos 22 Figure 3.1: Generic interview questions 94 Figure 5.1: The five criteria for inclusion on UNESCO’s Representative list 146 Figure 5.2: Andalusia Moving Forward with Europe logo 168 Figure 6.1: A logo on the PAO’s forums 174 Figure 6.2: The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Granada 179 Figure 6.3: The Spanish coat of arms with the granada visible at the bottom 179 Figure 6.4: A map from 1776 depicting Granada and Andalusia 180 Figure 6.5: The 1847 decree depicting Andalusia and Granada 182 Figure 6.6: The 1873 decree depicting Baja Andalucía and Alta Andalucía 182 Figure 6.7: An example of a metaphorical tree for flamenco classification 200 Figure 7.1: Memoria andaluza logo 234 Figure 8.1: Map of Granada 245 v Conventions My representation of the Spanish language requires clarification. Spanish utilises masculine and feminine endings of certain words. All Spanish words will be referred to using this gender system where necessary. For example, when referring to the term gitano (Eng: gypsy) more generally, the masculine ending ‘o’ is used. However, when specifically referring to a female gypsy I will use the feminine ending gitan-a. In the case of plural forms, Spanish uses similar suffixes to that of English (such as palo-s). Some terms used in this thesis appear to be in a plural form when they are in fact singular (such as tangos or alegrías). My representation of Spanish terms also requires some description. I adopt two systems. First, all abstract nouns, flamenco terms, styles, genres and so on will be italicized. Second, all institutions, place names, people, documents and so on will not be italicized. In both systems, an English translation will be given in parenthesis as follows (Eng: translation) on the first appearance of each term (see Appendix A for a glossary of all terms used). The representation of Spanish names is slightly problematic. Spanish surnames take on both the mother’s surname and the father’s surname (such as Melchor Córdoba Santiago). When referring to authors, I will use the full name in the first instance. On each following citation, I will only use both surnames. When referring to my informants, the full name of each person will be given on the first appearance in each chapter (see Appendix C for a list of all the informants referred to in this thesis). If there are two or more informants sharing the same first name, second and/or third names will be given to differentiate between the informants. It is also important to mention that the use of nicknames (Sp: apodos) is very common in the flamenco world. Overall, I refer to an artist’s most well-known name whether this is his/her real name or his/her apodo. In certain cases, an artist’s real name is given and the apodo is appended in inverted commas (such as María ‘la Canastera’). vi Some clarification is required on certain musical and cultural terms used. Flamenco is a complex and a broad tradition. For the sake of clarity, when referring to flamenco as a whole I will call it a ‘tradition’. When referring to smaller components or ‘sub-traditions’ of flamenco, I will use the term ‘genre’. Individual forms within flamenco will be referred to by the Spanish term palo (see Chapter One). The word ‘style’ will be used to describe the way in which the flamenco tradition or one of its constitutive genres/palos is performed. My use of the term Andalusia is also problematic and its representation needs to be treated carefully. Normally, I will refer to the region as ‘Andalusia’. However, I acknowledge the contested nature of the Andalusian region and Andalusian identity. Therefore, on occasions I refer to East Andalusia (comprising the provinces of Almería, Granada and Jaen). East Andalusia will be referred to as a ‘sub-region’ where necessary. When used as an adjective ‘east’ will be in lower case (such as east-Andalusian regionalism). Referencing in this thesis also requires a few comments. I adopt the referencing conventions of the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA). However, due to the number and the variety of sources used, I append two bibliographies to this thesis. The first includes all ‘standard’ scholarly sources. The second supplementary bibliography includes newspapers, periodicals, governmental publications and websites. For these supplementary references, when an author’s/institution’s name is available I will use normal in-text references (such as UNESCO 2003). For newspapers and periodicals, the day, the month and the year will also be included following the author as in (Barrado Timón 28 October, 2007). In these instances, a reference will appear in the supplementary bibliography. For anonymous articles, the publication will be referred to in the text. The date and page numbers (where necessary) will appear in parenthesis as in (4 May, 2012: 54–57).