AN INTERROGATION OF THE CONTEXT REFERENTIALITY OF POSTCOLONIAL SHONA POPULAR MUSIC IN ZIMBABWE: A SEARCH FOR THE CONTEMPORARY LEITMOTIFS By BENJAMIN MUDZANIRE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject AFRICAN LANGUAGES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROF D.E. MUTASA JOINT-PROMOTER: PROF M.L. MOJAPELO NOVEMBER 2016 DECLARATION Student Number: 47337966 I, Benjamin Mudzanire, declare that An interrogation of the context referentiality of postcolonial Shona popular music in Zimbabwe: a search for the contemporary leitmotifs is my own work and that the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ………………. 30 November 2016 Signature Date i Dedication I dedicate this thesis to the memory of my late father, educator and philanthropist, Samson Karekwaivanane Mudzanire, whose passion for education and humanity tremendously inspired me. ii Acknowledgements I am eternally grateful to the scholarly and frank guidance of my promoter and co- promoter, Professors D.E. Mutasa and M.L. Mojapelo; the duo that personifies rigour and academic excellence. Many thanks go to the UNISA Financial Aid Bureau for the support. Without your assistance, pursuing the programme would have been aborted at the dream level. In no small measure, I thank the Great Zimbabwe University Research and Post Graduate Studies for availing travel funds for consultations with supervisors. I also recognise the sacrifice and endurance of family members; my wife, Vimbai and our boys, Honour and Victory. I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to all those who helped me in so many ways during the writing of this thesis. Special thanks go to Dr Mickson Mazuruse who has been a well of encouragement throughout. Professors Shumirai Nyota, Jacob Mapara, Dr. Kuda Mapetere and VaK.T. Gondo; you have always been supportive of the project. iii ABSTRACT The study interrogates the context reflectivity of postcolonial Shona popular music in Zimbabwe. It also explores the extent to which the legal environment in which the same music is produced, disseminated and consumed affects expressivity and artistic precision. The study is inspired by the New Historicism theory which assumes that every work of art is a product of the historical moment that created it and can be identified with the cultural and political movements of the time. The same is believed of popular music. The study is also beholden to the Marxist literary tradition for its assessment of the discourse of politics and socio-economic issues in popular music. For all the analysis, an Afrocentric eye view informs the thesis. Being qualitative in perspective, the research mainly uses the hermeneutic research design as an operational framework for the interpretation of lyrical data. Hermeneutics, as a method of textual analysis, emphasizes the socio-cultural and historic influences on qualitative interpretation. Postcolonial Shona popular music is purposively sampled and critically studied using the hermeneutic method to tease out latent social and political nuances in lyrical data. Interviews are roped in as alternative opinions to validate hermeneutic data. The research observes that the legislative environment in which Zimbabwean popular music is composed is, on paper, very conducive for the art but in practice severely restrictive. The constitution allows the artiste sufficient space to sing any subject but confessions by some critics alert on the incidences of some censored products. Even against that backdrop artistes have gone on to compose politically suggestive music. However, from the first decade of independence, the tendency for the artiste has been to flow with the meta-narrative or hegemonic discourses of the state, while in the later decades the artiste sounds critical of the nationalist government. Realising the power of music to articulate serious national issues; among other prescriptions, the study recommends that government creates a flexible and democratic legislation that allows for unbounded creativity and consumption of artistic products. iv Key words Censorship, referentiality, motif, leitmotif, composition, lyrics, sociality, popular music, counter-narrative, meta-narrative v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration…………………………………………………………………………..........i Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….......ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….......iii Abstract………………………………………………………………………………........iv Key words ………………………………………………………………………………...v List of tables………………………………………………………………………………xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Preamble 1 1.1Background 2 1.1.1 Pre-colonial Shona music and social context 2 1.1.2 Shona music during the colonial period 6 1.1.3 The postcolonial period 10 1.2 Towards a working definition of popular music 11 1.3 Statement of problem 12 1.4 Aim of the research 13 1.4.1 Objectives 13 1.4.2 Research questions 14 1.5 Justification 14 1.6 Key words 17 1.7 Scope of study 18 1.8 Conclusion 19 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 21 2.0 Introduction 21 2.1 The nature of music 21 2.1.1 Music as communication 25 2. 2.0 Language and music 28 2.2.1 Music as literature 29 2.3 The use of figurative language in music 32 2.4 Music appreciation 34 2.5 The role of music in society 36 vi 2.5.1 Global trends in music and socio-political context 37 2.5.2 Regional trends in music and socio-political context 42 2.6 Music in colonial Zimbabwe 46 2.7 Postcolonial music literature in Zimbabwe 48 2.8 Music censorship and freedom of expression 52 2.8.1 Freedom of expression 53 2.8.2 Music censorship 54 2.8.3 Agents of music censorship 60 2.9 Conclusion 63 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 64 3.0 Introduction 64 3.1 The sociological approach 65 3.1.1 New historicism 67 3.1.2 Marxism and popular music 75 3.1.3 Afrocentricity 78 3.1.4 Africana womanism 81 3.2 Conclusion 84 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 85 4.0 Introduction 85 4.1 The qualitative research paradigm 85 4.1.1 Research design 87 4.1.2 Hermeneutics 88 4.1. 2.1 Characteristics of hermeneutics 89 4.1.2.2 Basic hermeneutic questions and authorial assumptions 99 4.1.2.2.1 Precautionary authorial assumptions 99 4.1.2.3 Hermeneutics and qualitative research 105 4.1.3 Data gathering techniques 106 4.1.3.1 Interviews 106 4.1.3.1.1 Advantages of interviews 107 4.1.3.1.2 A cautionary note on interviews 108 vii 4.1.3.2 Document analysis 109 4.1.3.2.1 Merits 110 4.1.3.2.2 Cautionary points 111 4.1.3.3 Choosing research subjects 111 4.1.3.3.1 Judgemental sampling method 111 4.1.3.3.1.1 Advantages of purposive sampling 112 4.1.3.3.1.2 Cautionary points 113 4.1.3.3.2 Sampling of music critics 113 4.1.3.3.3 Sampling of music 113 4.1.3.3.4 Sampling of music consumers 113 4.1.3.4 Transcription of music 114 4.1.3.5 Translation of music 114 3.1.4 Data presentation and analysis 115 4.1.5 Ethical considerations 116 4.2 Conclusion 118 CHAPTER 5: LEGAL AND POLITICAL MOTIFS 119 5.0 Introduction 119 5.1 Analysis of legal documents 120 5.1.1 Legislation 120 5.1.1.1 Freedom of expression 120 5.1.1.2 The Censorship and Entertainments Control Act [Chapter 10:04] 123 5.1.1.3 Broadcasting Services Act 128 5.1.1.4 The 75% Local Content regulation 130 5.2 Analysis of songs with a political motif 132 5.2.1 Independence euphoria 133 5.2.2 War memories 140 5.2.3 The call for unity 144 5.2.4 Exploitation of the subaltern 151 5.2.5 The land question 160 5.2.6 Corruption 171 5.2.7 Political violence 176 viii 5.2.8 Political polarisation 187 5.3 Analysis of Interviews 194 5.3.1 Profile of interviewees 195 5.3.2 Interviewee responses 197 5.3.2.1 Freedom of expression 197 5.3.2.2 Censorship 201 5.3.2.3 Reflections on independence 206 5.3.2.4 War memories 209 5.3.2.5 National unity 210 5.3.6 Exploitation of the subaltern 211 5.3.7 Politcal party music 212 5.3 Conclusion 213 CHAPTER 6: SOCIO-ECONOMIC LEITMOTIFS IN SHONA MUSIC 215 6.0 Introduction 215 6.1 Analysis of songs with a socio-economic motif 215 6.1.1 Culture 215 6.1.2 The concept of unhu/ubuntu 223 6.1.3 Romantic expressions 227 6.1.4 Domestic violence 234 6.1.5 Divorce 241 6.1.6 The HIV/AIDS conundrum 245 6.1.7 Gender issues 251 6.1.8 Poverty 262 6.1.9 Escaping home: Diasporan discourses in popular music 270 6.2 Analysis of Interviews 279 6.2.1 Music and culture 280 6.2.2 Marriage and family issues 282 6.2.3 Romantic expressions 284 6.2.4 Gender 286 6.2.5 Economic issues 288 6.2.6 Diasporan discourses 290 ix 6.3 Conclusion 294 CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION 295 7.0 Introduction 295 7.1 The creative environment of music 295 7.1.1The escape route 300 7. 2 Political motifs 302 7.2.1Sustaining nationalist meta-narratives 302 7.2.1.1 Immediate post-independence reflections 303 7.2.2 Counter-narrating the vision of the state 307 7.2.2.1 Land 308 7.2.2.2 Corruption 309 7.2.2.3 Political violence 310 7.2.2.4 Political polarisation 312 7.3 Socio-economic issues 313 7.3.1 Culture 314 7.3.2 Romantic expressions 315 7.3.3 Domestic violence and divorce 317 7.3.4 The HIV and AIDS pandemic 319 7.3.5 Gender 320 7.3.6 Poverty 323 7.3.7 Escaping home: diasporan discourses in popular music 326 7.4 Conclusion 328 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION 329 8.0 Introduction 329 8.1 Research findings 329 8.2 Recommendations of the study 335 RERERENCES 337 APPENDICES 373 APPENDIX A: Music critics 373 APPENDIX B: Artiste Interview 374 APPENDIX C: Interview guide: music listeners 375 x APPENDIX D: Interviews with diasporans 377 APPENDIX E: Curriculum Vitae for Mudzanire Benjamin 378 xi List of Tables Table 1: Authorial assumptions...............................................................................99 xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Preamble The role of music as an articulate record of a people‘s culture and history has largely gone undocumented in national and international discourses.