ZENTRUM FÜR BIODIVERSITÄT UND NACHHALTIGE LANDNUTZUNG SEKTION BIODIVERSITÄT, ÖKOLOGIE UND NATURSCHUTZ CENTRE OF BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE LAND USE SECTION: BIODIVERSITY, ECOLOGY AND NATURE CONSERVATION Genetic diversity of sexual and parthenogenetic soil living arthropods (Collembola) in Europe: colonization patterns, pre-glacial diversifications and founder effects Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultäten der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen vorgelegt von Diplom-Biologe Helge von Saltzwedel aus Uelzen Göttingen, Dezember 2015 Referent: Prof. Dr. Stefan Scheu Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Mark Maraun Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 18.03.2016 No serious biologist doubts the fact that evolution has happened, nor that all living creatures are cousins of one another. Richard Dawkins The answer to life, universe and everything: 42. Douglas Adam Table of contents Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Phylogeograhy and soil .................................................................................................................... 12 Sex and parthenogenesis ................................................................................................................. 15 Molecular markers ........................................................................................................................... 17 Collembola ....................................................................................................................................... 18 Study objectives and hypotheses .................................................................................................... 20 References ....................................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDER EVENTS AND PRE-GLACIAL DIVERGENCES SHAPE THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF EUROPEAN COLLEMBOLA SPECIES ............ 35 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ 36 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 37 Materials and Methods.................................................................................................................... 39 Sampling of animals and DNA extraction ................................................................................... 39 Phylogenetic analyses, divergence time estimation and population structure ........................... 42 Results .............................................................................................................................................. 43 Population structure ................................................................................................................... 43 Haplotype networks and phylogenetic analyses ......................................................................... 48 Estimation of divergence times ................................................................................................... 53 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 56 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 59 References ....................................................................................................................................... 60 Data Accessibility ............................................................................................................................. 66 Supporting information ................................................................................................................... 66 CHAPTER 3 GENETIC STRUCTURE AND COLONIZATION PATTERNS OF SEXUAL AND PARTHENOGENETIC SPRINGTAILS (HEXAPODA, COLLEMBOLA) IN EUROPE ..................................................................................................................................... 81 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ 82 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 83 Materials and Methods.................................................................................................................... 85 Data collection ............................................................................................................................ 85 Phylogenetic analyses, divergence time estimation and population structure ........................... 88 Clusters of low genetic distances ................................................................................................ 89 Results .............................................................................................................................................. 89 Population structure ................................................................................................................... 89 Phylogenetic lineages, molecular age estimates and phylogeographic patterns ....................... 91 Demographic changes and genetic variation .............................................................................. 97 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 98 Refugia and dispersal .................................................................................................................. 98 Dispersal and vicariance.............................................................................................................. 99 Mitochondrial and nuclear markers .......................................................................................... 100 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................... 102 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... 102 References ..................................................................................................................................... 103 Data Accessibility ........................................................................................................................... 107 Supporting information ................................................................................................................. 108 CHAPTER 4 COLONIZATION OF EUROPE BY PARISOTOMA NOTABILIS (COLLEMBOLA): CRYPTIC DIVERSITY AND ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ...... 117 Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 118 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 119 Materials and Methods.................................................................................................................. 120 Ethics statement........................................................................................................................ 120 Sampling of animals and DNA extraction ................................................................................. 121 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................. 123 Results ............................................................................................................................................ 125 Phylogeny and independent evolutionary units ........................................................................ 125 Genetic diversity ........................................................................................................................ 128 Molecular divergence times ...................................................................................................... 131 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 131 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... 135 References ..................................................................................................................................... 135 Data Accessibility ........................................................................................................................... 142 Supplementary material ................................................................................................................ 142 GENERAL DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 151 References 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