SEMANTIC SHIFT IN LUMARAMA: A LEXICAL PRAGMATICS APPROACH BY KHACHULA AROMO ANNET A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN LINGUISTICS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI NOVEMBER, 2013 DECLARATION This dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for the award of a degree in any other university. Student’s Name: __________________________________________Date_____________ ANNET AROMO KHACHULA This dissertation has been submitted for examination with our approval as university supervisors. Supervisor (1) ________________________________________________Date___________ DR. CATHERINE AGOYA Supervisor (2) _________________________________________________Date__________ DR. ALICE WACHIRA ii DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my dear husband Fidelius Magero, for his support and inspiration. He took care of all my needs and supported me morally and materially. My children, Precious and Pavel had to go through hardships in my absence. You are the reason for my struggle to excel. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank God for the gift of life he has given me throughout the period taken in carrying out this study. He has kept me healthy and extended his healing hand in times of sickness. God has taken care of my entire family both in my presence and absence. My parents played a very important role in setting the academic foundation in my life. They struggled to educate me and ensure that education had a positive impact in my life. They would always emphasize the importance of education for a bright future. I thank them so much because without their initiative to provide basic education to me, I would not have come this far. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Were Munyasa, the old man who made an impact to this study by giving me the data that I required. Apart from the information I collected from him, I also learnt more from his contributions. I thank my grandmother Florida, for her contribution and correction especially in the correct pronunciation of words. My sincere appreciation also goes to the lecturers who contributed towards my success during the time of study I was at the university. I am grateful to my supervisors; Dr. Agoya and Dr. Wachira for the support and guidance they gave me as I carried out my research. I would like to thank the lecturers who took me through the course: Prof. Okombo, Prof. Omondi, Dr. Kaviti, Dr. Marete, Dr. Mukhwana, Dr. Oduor, Dr. Shroeder, Dr.Nyachae and Mr. Mungania. It is worth mentioning that my siblings contributed to the success of this study through their encouragement and prayers. They gave me the support I needed and even offered to take care of my children at times when I was stranded. iv ABSTRACT This study is meant to analyze the semantic shifts in the Lumarama dialect of Luhya language, based on the lexical pragmatic approach. The study focuses on the types of semantic changes involved in determining the meaning of words in Lumarama. Chapter one provides an introduction to the study. Here the background information to the study is provided through a brief definition of semantic shift as the main concern for the research. The background to the language being studied is given in the chapter. In the same chapter, information on the statement of the problem has been presented, explaining why it is important to study the semantic shifts in Lumarama. The rationale of the investigation is given in addition to stating the scope and limitations of the study. Theoretical framework is looked at in details, alluding to a number of proponents. The lexical pragmatic theory forms the foundation of the study and its two sub-theories have been used; lexical semantics and conversational implicatures. The literature review is discussed in two ways: literature based on the study and the theoretical literature. Lastly, research methodology is presented in terms when and where the information was collected from and the methods used in collecting the information. The different types of semantic shifts involved in Lumarama are discussed in chapter two. There are two major types of semantic shifts analyzed through definitions and examples of utterances containing words which have been affected by a shift in their meaning. The discussion is done in relation to the pragmatic processes which result in the shift in the meaning of the affected words. In chapter three, the effects of semantic shifts in Lumarama are analyzed. In the analysis, attention is given to the advantages and disadvantages that Lumarama as a dialect has faced due to the semantic changes. Chapter four has the analysis of the data that had been collected. The data collection included oral interviews, recordings from vernacular radio stations and the researcher, who by virtue of being a native speaker of the dialect, possesses native speaker competence. The summary of the study is given in chapter five. The findings which come up as a result of the research are discussed before the conclusions and recommendations. Therefore, socio-cultural forces which allow people to come in contact under different circumstances, contribute to the shift in meaning of words in a language. The study also looks at the extent to which the Lumarama dialect has been affected by the changes which have occurred in the meanings of its lexemes. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………..….i DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………….….ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………iii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………..iv TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………….…..v LIST OF FIGURES……………………… ………………………………………………….viii CHAPTER ONE ………………………………………………………………………………1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………..1 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE LANGUAGE………………………………………………...2 1.2 STATEMENT TO THE PROBLEM………………………………………………………3 1.3 OBJECTIVES……………………………………………………………………………...4 1.4 HYPOTHESES…………………………………………………………………………….4 1.5 RATIONALE………………………………………………………………………………4 1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS…………………………………………………………….5 1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………5 1.7.1 REPRESENTATION OF CONCEPTS………………………………………………….6 1.7.2 Lexical Semantics……………………………………………………………………….8 1.7.3 Conversational Implicatures……………………………………………………………9 1.7.4 Ad hoc concepts……………………………………………………………………….11 1.8 LEXICAL PRAGMATIC PROCESSES………………………………………………….13 1.8.1 Lexical Narrowing………………………………………………………………………14 1.8.2 Lexical Broadening……………………………………………………………………..15 1.8.3 Approximation……………………………………………………………………….…15 1.8.4 Metaphoric Extensions…………………………………………………………………16 1.8.5 Category Extension………………………………………………………………….….17 1.8.6 Hyperbole……………………………………………………………………………….17 vi 1.9 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………18 1.9.1 Theoretical Literature…………………………………………………………………..20 1.9.1.1 The Co-operative Principle…………………………………………………………..22 1.9.1.2 The Maxims of Conversation………………………………………………………..22 1.10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………..23 1.11 SIGNIFICANCE…………………………………………………………………………24 CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………………….25 SEMANTIC SHIFTS…………………………………………………………………………..25 2.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………25 2.1 SEMANTIC SHIFTS………………………………………………………………………25 2.2 THE ROLE OF CONTEXT………………………………………………………………..28 2.3 TYPES OF SEMANTIC SHIFTS………………………………………………………….29 2.3.1 Lexical Narrowing………………………………………………………………………...30 2.3.2 Lexical Broadening……………………………………………………………………….31 2.3.3 Approximation……………………………………………………………………………33 2.3.4 Category Extensions……………………………………………………………………...35 2.3.5 Metaphoric Extensions…………………………………………………………………...36 2.3.6 Hyperbole………………………………………………………………………………...36 CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………………………38 CAUSES OF SEMANTIC SHIFTS………………………………………………………….38 3.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..38 3.1 CAUSES OF SEMANTIC SHIFT……………………………………………………….39 3.1.1 Socio-cultural Causes……………………………………………………………………40 3.1.2 Technological and Civilization Progress………………………………………………..42 3.1.3 Religion………………………………………………………………………………….44 3.1.4 Psychological Factors……………………………………………………………………46 3.2 EFFECTS OF SEMANTIC SHIFT……………………………………………………….50 vii 3.2.1 Widening of Meaning……………………………………………………………………51 3.2.2 Narrowing of Meaning…………………………………………………………………..52 3.2.3 Amelioration……………………………………………………………………………..53 3.2.4 Pejoration…………………………………………………………………………………54 3.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..55 CHAPTER FOUR………………………………………………………………………………56 TYPES OF LEXICAL PRAGMATIC PROCESSES………………………………………….56 4.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..56 4.1 DATA ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………………56 4.1.1 Lexical Narrowing…………………………………………………………………………58 4.1.2 Lexical Broadening………………………………………………………………………...60 4.1.3 Approximation……………………………………………………………………………..62 4.1.4 Category Extensions……………………………………………………………………….63 4.1.5 Metaphoric Extensions…………………………………………………………………….64 4.1.6 Hyperbole………………………………………………………………………………….66 CHAPTER FIVE……………………………………………………………………………….67 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………67 5.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….67 5.1 Findings……………………………………………………………………………………..67 5.2 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………..69 5.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..70 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………71 APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………………76 Appendix one…………………………………………………………………………………..76 Sample questions asked during the interview………………………………………………….76 Appendix two………………………………………………………………………………….77 Semantic shifts in Lumarama…………………………………………………………………..77 viii Words whose meanings have narrowed……………………………………………………….77 Words whose meanings have broadened………………………………………………………78