Running Head: DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY Determinants of Indigenous Student Learning with Digital Technology: A Qualitative Study in a Remote Manitoba First Nations Community by Ben Akoh A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Faculty of Education University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Canada Copyright © 2018 by Ben Akoh DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 2 Abstract The goal of this qualitative study was to identify the determinants that assist remote post- secondary Indigenous Canadian learners (in an isolated fly-in only community) to adapt and orient themselves both to Eurocentric and Indigenous ways of learning. Digital technology such as mobile devices was used to produce documentation that served as the data for the research. The outcomes of the study led to the identification of a finite quantity of determinants. This is only a first step towards such identification, which provides a base for further research. Eight participants were directly involved in the study and six other participants provided contextual information. Participants showed a deep understanding of the problem: they were well meaning, eager and responsive to the study. The complexity of participant responses indicated that rethinking learning and understanding the place of Indigenous methods in education were needed. Rethinking solutions may require the direct participation of various stakeholders including educators and Indigenous communities. The solutions cannot be simply more technology or more pedagogy, although a careful reconsideration of pedagogy is required. Future research is key, but those research efforts must enter the community with a truly open mind and with culturally appropriate approaches without any pre-fixed solutions. Keywords: digital technology, Aboriginal, Manitoba, pedagogy, adult learning. DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 3 Dedication For Karen, Veda, Jediel, Zuriel. DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 4 Acknowledgement I am eternally grateful to my academic adviser, Dr. Marlene Atleo for guiding me through the cloudy waters of academia, its politics and bureaucracy and for helping me “bite the bullet” to pursue this academic journey. She is rare and absolutely incredible. This research would not have been possible without her belief in me. I appreciate the members of my advisory committee, Dr. Denis Hlynka who taught me to think philosophically and to read in between the lines of technology. A big thank you to Dr. Diana Brydon who made me to think more critically, to see the local in the global and vice versa and to imbibe the discipline of an academic. Their collective guidance shaped me these past years and will continue to influence my professional identity for many more to come. I am also pleased to acknowledge the generous financial support of the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada through the Manitoba Research Alliance grant “Partnering for Change – Community-Based Solutions to Aboriginal and Inner-City Poverty”, whose contributions made it possible for me to reach people that are often forgotten in our society. I also appreciate the University of Manitoba Graduate Fund for its generous support. This study would not have been possible without the support of the research participants. Cindy and PJ Beardy who opened doors that an “outsider” researcher could only dream of. I am grateful to Alvin, Tommy, Wilfred, Sumner, Grant, Frankie, Roberta and Stephanie, members of the community that helped me to see from their perspectives. I am forever indebted to Dr. Brenda Firman for being patient with me and for schooling me in the fundamental principles of Indigenous respect and understanding. I appreciate the University College of the North for granting me access to its facilities in the research location. Ed was amazing. Thank you Elder DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 5 Ness, the UCN Council of Elders and the Bunibonibee Cree Nation Chief and Council. My friends at MTS, Elan and Gus, you are one of a kind. I have developed many supportive relationships that offered help and encouragement when they were mostly needed. Thank you Chris, Ejugwu, Taisa, Jenn, Vanessa, Freddie, Jide, The Shift and Springs. Your little went a long way. Mama Violet Alache, Papa Lawrence Agaba, Dr. Omale (deceased), Mummy Omale, Harrison, Christina, Ada, David, Emmanuel, Dee, Grace, Atayi, Unekwu, Ejima, Nigo, Gideon, Sonnie, Debbie and my many nieces and nephews. Their prayers were answered. To Karen, Veda, Jediel, Zuriel. I robbed them of time. Their patience with me as I worked through this process has yielded its result. The doctoral journey could be lonely even when surrounded by amazing people. Your company gave me a sense of comfort. I am pleased to acknowledge the generous financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada through the Manitoba Research Alliance grant: Partnering for Change – Community-based solutions for Aboriginal and inner-city poverty. DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 6 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Dedication ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................ 4 Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................. 6 List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 10 List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 11 List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 14 1.1 Research Overview ............................................................................................................ 14 1.2 Research Context .............................................................................................................. 28 1.3 Research Participants ....................................................................................................... 37 1.4 Research Question ............................................................................................................ 38 1.5 Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................... 38 1.6 Legal and Policy Imperatives ............................................................................................ 43 1.7 Research Purpose ............................................................................................................... 47 1.8 Conceptual Framework – Virtual Reality Frameworks and Cognitive Movements ......... 48 1.9 Research Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................ 60 1.9.1 Insider/Outsider Dilemma .......................................................................................... 63 1.9.2 Insider/Outsider Research: Situating Self in the Research Context ............................... 63 DETERMINANTS OF INDIGENOUS LEARNING WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 7 1.9.3 Access Policies .......................................................................................................... 64 1.9.4 Clarifying the Insider Outsider Dilemma .................................................................. 65 1.9.5 Philosophizing “the other” from an African Perspective .......................................... 66 1.9.6 Geographic and Contextual Limitations ..................................................................... 72 1.9.7 Limitations on Consideration of Cognitive Shift ....................................................... 73 1.9.8 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 78 2.1 Global Post-secondary Trends ........................................................................................... 78 2.2 Post-Secondary Trends in Canada .................................................................................... 82 2.3 Trends in Indigenous Post-Secondary Education ............................................................. 84 2.4 The Residential School System ........................................................................................ 89 2.5 Creating an Indigenous Post-Secondary Institution ......................................................... 92 2.6 Digital Technologies in Post-Secondary Education .......................................................... 94 2.6.1 Digital Technology Definitions .................................................................................