JOHN JAMES AUDUBON Most often, Henry Thoreau’s bird-book information came from Professor Thomas Nuttall, from Alexander Wilson, and from John James Audubon. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1785 April 26, Tuesday: John James Audubon was born as the son of a French lieutenant, Jean Audubon, with his mistress, a girl of Les Cayes, Saint Domingue, named Mlle Jeanne Rabine and identified in early documents as “Creole de Santo Domingo.” She would die while her infant, who as a child created out of wedlock was named Jean Rabine, was but six months old. The mother’s having been listed as “Creole,” plus John James’s illegitimacy, have given rise to the supposition that the infant was racially mixed; however, the term “Creole” as used in that context did not suggest racial mixture but instead implies only that this girl’s family had been in the New World for some period of time, long enough to be considered to be local people — rather than having recently emigrated to the French plantations of Haiti from Europe.1 1. Present-day usage, affected by the racial passions of the post-Civil War era, has produced one “creole myth” among pure-white people in New Orleans, that “creole” always applied only to “pure white” persons such as themselves, while it has produced another very contrasting “creole myth” among the cafe-au-lait population of New Orleans created by the extensive miscegenation of antebellum years, that “creole” commonly indicated the “cafe au lait” persons such as themselves. And of course, race pride can carry us the rest of the way, and make Audubon out to have been a white man if we are proud of being white, or a black man if we are proud of being black. Looking at New Orleans newspapers in the period 1810-1830, however, it is clear that a child born in New Orleans to New England Yankee parents had absolute recognition as a creole, but a St. Domingue-born resident of the state was never so identified. Audubon, in effect, would never have been called a creole in antebellum Louisiana — so where did this record of his mother being “Creole de Santo Domingo” originate? Native-born slaves, free persons of color, and children of Irish or German immigrants all carried identity as creoles, as the judicial records of Louisiana demonstrate beyond dispute. Much of the confusion in all this resulted from the usages attendant upon the cultural and political conflict between the original colonial population and the American newcomers after the Purchase of 1803. It became a convenience in distinguishing the competing factions to speak of the “ancienne population” as “the creoles,” but in the singular form, “creole” always meant nothing more than native-born. Another suggestion that has been made is that an Afro-Cuban slave born in Cuba was a criollo, just as much as his Hispano-Cuban master — and vice versa. “Creole de” is most often used to mean “native born” in regard to Santo Domingo, or Louisiana, or some other New World location, as opposed to someone who had been born in Europe and was “fresh off the boat.” The term was without any reference to racial identity either way. At no time did it make any suggestion of “mixed blood,” a distortion not uncommon outside of Louisiana. The racial connotation we now profess to find is simply absent, although the term might in some populations have indicated Spanish stock in distinction from Northern European stock: technically a Creole was the child of Spanish or French parents born in the New World. The thing to bear in mind is that had Audubon’s appearance in any manner suggested any degree of black ancestry, he would have been treated much differently in Jacksonian America than in fact he was treated. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1788 August: The 3-year-old illegitimate motherless Jean Rabine was taken to France by his father. JOHN JAMES AUDUBON HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1789 March: At the age of four, Jean Rabine was formally adopted in France by his biological father and his biological father’s lawful French spouse, and acquired the name Jean-Jacques Fougere. JOHN JAMES AUDUBON HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1794 John James Audubon’s father took him to France. From 1794 until 1795 Frenchmen would need to deal with a day that by mandate was to consist of 10 hours, each of which was to be made up of 100 minutes, each of which was to be made up of 100 seconds, each of which would contain 100 tierces: “Le jour, de minuit à minuit, est divisé en dix parties, chaque partie en dix autres, ainsi de suite jusqu’à la plus petite portion commensurable de la durée.” HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1796 Eleven-year-old John James Audubon was sent for Naval Training at Rochefort-sur-Mer. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1803 After having purchased an estate in Pennsylvania, John James Audubon’s father sent him to the United States to both remove him from the bloody conflict in France, and look after this new possession. Once upon this new estate, Audubon met Lucy Bakewell, a neighbor — and they became engaged. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1805 On a year-long return to France to visit with family, John James Audubon completed some of his first known sketches of local birds. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1806 May: John James Audubon returned to America accompanied by Ferdinand Rozier, who would partner in Mill Grove, the Pennsylvania estate. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1807 During this year John James Audubon became disenchanted with life at Mill Grove, the family’s Pennsylvania estate. He was spending more and more of his time in the drawing of birds, for instance teaching himself to wire the dead birds into lifelike positions to enable accurate sketching and drawing. He and his partner Ferdinand Rozier headed for Louisville intending to start up a commercial venture. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON 1808 John James Audubon returned briefly from Louisville to Pennsylvania in order to wed his intended, Lucy Bakewell, and then the newlyweds departed for Louisville. From this year into 1826 Audubon would be making numerous journeys through the backwoods United States. On the following two screens is a sample of his stuff. HDT WHAT? INDEX JOHN JAMES AUDUBON JOHN JAMES AUDUBON THE PRAIRIE. Murder attempt at a frontier cabin; encounter with an Indian. On my return from the Upper Mississippi, I found myself obliged to cross one of the wide Prairies, which, in that portion of the United States vary the appearance of the country. The weather was fine, all around me was as fresh and blooming as if it had just issued from the bosom of nature. My knapsack, my gun, and my dog, were all I had for baggage and company. But, although well moccasined, I moved slowly along, attracted by the brilliancy of the flowers, and the gambols of the fawns around their dams, to all appearance as thoughtless of danger as I felt myself. My march was of long duration; I saw the sun sinking beneath the horizon long before I could perceive any appearance of woodland, and nothing in the shape of man had I met with that day. The track which I followed was only an old Indian trace, and as darkness overshadowed the prairie, I felt some desire to reach at least a copse, in which I might lie down to rest. The Night-hawks were skimming over and around me, attracted by the buzzing wings of the beetles which form their food, and the distant howling of wolves gave me some hope that I should soon arrive at the skirts of some woodland. I did so, and almost at the same instant a fire-light attracting my eye, I moved towards it, full of confidence that it proceeded from the camp of some wandering Indians. I was mistaken:-I discovered by its glare that it was from the hearth of a small log cabin, and that a tall figure passed and repassed between it and me, as if busily engaged in household arrangements. I reached the spot, and presenting myself at the door, asked the tall figure, which proved to be a woman, if I might take shelter under her roof for the night. Her voice was gruff, and her attire negligently thrown about her. She answered in the affirmative. I walked in, took a wooden stool, and quietly seated myself by the fire. The next object that attracted my notice was a finely formed young Indian, resting his head between his hands, with his elbows on his knees. A long bow rested against the log wall near him, while a quantity of arrows and two or three raccoon skins lay at his feet. He moved not; he apparently breathed not. Accustomed to the habits of the Indians, and knowing that they pay little attention to the approach of civilized strangers (a circumstance which in some countries is considered as evincing the apathy of their character), I addressed him in French, a language not unfrequently partially known to the people in that neighborhood. He raised his head, pointed to one of his eyes with his finger, and gave me a significant glance with the other. His face was covered with blood.