Let the Ancestors Speak: an archaeological excavation and re-evaluation of events prior and pertaining to the 1854 siege of Mugombane, Limpopo Province, South Africa Amanda Beth Esterhuysen A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg, 2006 DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work unless otherwise acknowledged. It is being submitted fro the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other University. ___________________________________ ___16_______ day of ______March______, 2006 ii ABSTRACT During the 19th century the present Makapan Valley World Heritage site was a place of repeated refuge from the conflicts arising from shifting authority, acquisition and loss of power, and competition over the control of resources in the northern regions of Republic of South Africa. During 1854 growing resistance amongst the northern AmaNdebele against the frontier of colonial expansion erupted in the murder of a number of trekboers who were encroaching on their territory. Historic Cave, one of the caves in the Valley, became written into the Afrikaner Nationalist narratives of the 20th century as the place where the Boers avenged the treacherous murder of their fellow trekkers, by suppressing the savage forces of chief Mugombane and his Kekana chiefdom. The events surrounding the siege and the scale of the massacre became blurred in the playing out of these political agendas, while the Kekana oral histories remained silent on the matter. The excavation of Historic Cave, prompted by the contradictions in the historical narrative and the silence in the oral record, provided a means to detect the boundary between what happened and what was said to have happened. This thesis presents the results of a survey of the Valley, the excavation of Historic Cave and the analysis of the remains of the siege of 1854. The archaeological survey and excavation indicates that a number of scurmishes took place in the valley, but that Historic Cave was occupied only on one occasion for any length of time, during the siege of 1854. The lime enriched deposits and dry conditions within the cave have allowed for the exceptional preservation of plant, animal and human remains. This enduring evidence chronicled the activities and steps taken by the Kekana to survive. The spatial layout of the cave together with cultural remains echo the structure and hierarchy of the society trapped within it, which like many African societies of this time comprised a heterogeneous ‘royal’ core and other ‘foreign’ subordinate groups. Evidence for divination reflects the final attempts to divine the cause of misfortune and protect the group against maleficent forces. However, it is argued that the social and religious forces that operated to keep the chiefdom together may have begun to loosen under the pressure of the siege, especially as the polluting forces of death became stronger and the group began to succumb. The remains of young and old people, and the desiccated bodies of a child and a young woman speak of untold suffering and provide a glimpse of the horror within iii the cave. From this it is reasoned that following the devastation of the siege the core of the chiefdom was challenged; the chief was ‘dealt with’ and the political power base shifted. The real reason for the ‘silence’ then lies at the point of rupture, at the stage when the surviving statesmen contrived a suitable account of ensuing events to give the new chief legitimacy and the lineage continuity. iv In memory of my brothers Stephen Andrew Esterhuysen 1969 - 2002 Peter Jonathan Esterhuysen 1963 - 2004 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to my supervisors Lyn Wadley and Phil Bonner for their support and guidance during the excavation, analysis and writing phases of this research. Lyn kindly agreed to continue to supervise this project even after taking early retirement and moving some distance from the University. Phil agreed to breach both faculty and disciplinary boundaries to supervise this thesis and provide invaluable mentorship. This research was funded by the NRF through the Thuthuka Researcher in Training programme. My thanks and respect to the elders of the Kekana Royal Household who granted permission for the excavation. The Kekana have a history of dispossession so that their faith in my good faith contributed greatly to this project especially after a dispute erupted between themselves and local government. The elders were extremely patient and accommodating and endured many hot hours listening to my explanations. In this regard I am also indebted to Peter Lekgoathi for acting as translator, spokesperson and intermediary. The logistics involved in getting equipment into the cave, setting up excavations and working in the cave were never going to be easy, but the following people made it possible. John Cruise and his crew kindly propped the roof over the main excavation area. Rose Sekhaolelo, Ernest Mokhare, Alpheus Sekhaolelo, Mokwasheng Evens, Elisa Baloyi, Phineas Makuleke undertook the arduous task of sieving and sorting. Johannes Makuleke and his sons were always available to help move equipment and thankfully kept the fire under the ‘donkey’ burning at the Research house. Mike Buchanan and members of CROSA facilitated my entry into a number of caverns in the Makapan Valley and ensured my safe return to the surface. As I was not permitted to hire people or coerce students to work with me in the cave, I am deeply grateful to friends and colleagues who gave of their time to assist with the excavations; Melinda Swift, Dee Fisher, Susan Smuts, Phophi Raletjena, Matodzi Silidi, Ron Viney, Shelona and David Klatzow, and Lyn Wadley. Jeannette Smith and Virginia Saunders in particular provided a great deal of assistance in vi surveying and excavating the cave, and Judith Stevenson helped to map the floor in Dg1. I am also indebted to a range of people who provided technical expertise and assistance. Marilee Wood for the bead analysis, Jason Hemingway and Mohammed Spocter who assisted with the analysis of the human remains, Grant Hall for assisting with the identification of plant remains and Chet Cain for identifying the animal bones. A special thanks to Virginia Sanders and Lodox for facilitating the x- ray of the mummy. A project of this nature does not happen without much discussion. Judy Maguire generously provided information about the Valley, Tom Huffman assisted with pottery identification and endured much discussion around identity and alliances, Robert Thornton freely gave of information about divination and introduced me to the traditional healer Magodweni. Magodweni provided new insight into the world of divination. Kevin Kuykendall, Andy Herries and Alf Latham gave of their knowledge of the caves in the area, and assisted in finding and retrieving archaeological remains. Jeannette Smith provided much discussion and the late David Hammond- Tooke, Peter Delius, Peter Lekgoathi and ofcourse Phil Bonner inspired many of the ideas in the thesis. My thanks to Hendrina and Bert Ysel who gave up their Saturday to work at the Mokopane museum following a request I placed in the local newspaper asking people to return items taken from the cave to the museum. Hendrina also granted me access to the museum’s photo archive, and kept me well stocked in mampoer. To my brothers Stephen and Peter, who never saw the outcome of the project, you will always be remembered for your support and inspiration. My special thanks to my parents who cajoled and encouraged me to finish the thesis through the worst of times, and to Stuart Dunsmore for assisting in innumerable ways. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .................................................................................................................ii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................x LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................xi PREFACE........................................................................................................................xii CHAPTER 1: The political landscape of the 19th century .................................................. 1 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 2. The background to the siege................................................................................ 2 3. Frontiers............................................................................................................... 7 3.1. The ‘internal’ or ‘interstitial’ frontier................................................................ 8 3.2. The Colonial Frontier................................................................................... 12 4. Plurality, mutability and fluidity ........................................................................... 16 5. The structure of the thesis.................................................................................