REVISITING THE MINDFULNESS FRAMEWORK IN HERITAGE TOURISM TAN POH LING UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2017 REVISITING THE MINDFULNESS FRAMEWORK IN HERITAGE TOURISM by TAN POH LING Thesis submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2017 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To write a good dissertation is a long and difficult journey, a pilgrimage not for the swift. If it were not for the many wonderful people I met along the way my journey would have been more difficult. I would like to express my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to those who have helped me throughout this doctoral programme. Without their guidance, encouragement and understanding I would never be able to reach my final academic destination. This thesis would not have been possible without the help, support and patience of my supervisors Dr. Shuhaida Md. Noor and Associate Professor Dr. Hasrina Mustafa. Throughout the research process, both of my supervisor has been very supportive and remained encouraging till the completion of this thesis. Their wisdom, careful guidance and encouraging supervision have lit my way to get my thesis completed. I would also like to convey my deepest appreciation to the management of the heritage site especially Pinang Peranakan Mansion, Khoo Kongsi and Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion management. Their valuable support in providing me permission and to ensure the process of data collection is smooth are much appreciated. Also, their involvement in this data collection is the most important input for this study. Special thanks go to my loved ones. To both my parents who supported me with unconditional love, understanding, encouragement and unfailing support through this PhD, which is all about persistence, hard work and determination. My extended appreciation also goes to my family members especially my siblings for their good advice and strong support for me to go through this journey. To the love of my life, ii thank you for supporting me throughout this journey with much love and understanding. I would also like to thank all my friends who are also in the same journey of PhD with me and also friends that are around me for their assistance, kind friendship, support and valuable insight. Without them, the pursuit of this doctorate journey would be more difficult and lonely. To my other significant half, Jojo Ngo who encouraged and supported me spiritually throughout this journey. THANK YOU Tan Poh Ling iii TABLES OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement ii Tables of Contents iv List of Table x List of Figure xiv List of Abbreviations xv Abstrak xvii Abstract xix CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCATION 1.1 Background of Research 1 1.2 Problem Statement 8 1.3 Research Objectives and Research Questions 10 1.4 Research Significance 11 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Overview 14 2.2 Heritage Tourism 15 2.3 Cultural Heritage Tourism in Penang 20 2.4 Preservation of Heritage Site 23 2.5 Overview of Mindfulness 29 2.6 Mindfulness 31 2.6.1 History and Origin of Mindfulness 31 2.6.2 The Concept of Mindfulness 38 2.6.3 Conceptualisation of Mindfulness 41 iv 2.7 Mindfulness in Tourism 44 2.7.1 The Mindfulness Framework 46 2.7.1(a) Communication Factor 47 2.7.1(b) Visitor Factors 51 2.7.1(c) Organisation of Content 52 2.7.1(d) Consequences 53 2.8 Overview of Interpretation 53 2.8.1 Conceptualisation of Interpretation 54 2.8.2 Visitor’s Interpretation 58 2.9 The Importance of Interpretation 61 2.10 Interpretive Outcome 64 2.11 Research Gap 65 2.11.1 Gap in the Communication Factors 67 2.11.2 Gap in the Visitor Factors 69 2.11.3 Gap in Mindfulness Measure 74 2.11.4 Gap in Mindfulness Outcome 77 2.12 Conceptual Framework 79 CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY 3.1 Overview 84 3.2 Research Paradigm and Research Strategy 84 3.3 Quantitative Research Method 86 3.4 Research Design 88 3.5 Exploratory Study 91 3.5.1 Exploratory Study 1: In-Depth Interview 91 v 3.5.1(a) Results and Discussion: In-Depth Interview 92 3.5.2 Exploratory Study 2: Survey Questionnaire 99 3.5.2(a) Results of Survey Questionnaire 100 3.5.2(b) Reliability Test 112 3.6 The Research Survey 114 3.6.1 Target Population 115 3.6.2 Sampling Design 116 3.6.3 Sampling Size 117 3.7 Research Instrument 119 3.8 Operationalisation 125 3.8.1 Item Identification 126 3.8.1(a) Communication Factors 126 3.8.1(b) Visitor Factors 138 3.8.1(c) Mindfulness 140 3.8.1(d) Interpretive Outcome 146 3.9 Data Analysis 148 3.9.1 Structural Equation Modelling: Partial Least Square 150 CHAPTER 4 – PRELIMINARY DATA ANALYSIS 4.1 Overview 152 4.2 Data Editing 152 4.3 Response Rate 153 4.4 Data Screening and Preliminary Analysis 153 4.4.1 Missing Value Analysis 153 4.4.2 Common Method Bias (CMB) 154 vi 4.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) 156 4.6 Final Framework 159 4.6.1 Statement of Hypotheses 162 4.7 Partial Least Squares Model: Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) 164 CHAPTER 5 - STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING: MINDFULNESS AND INTERPRETIVE OUTCOME 5.1 Overview 165 5.2 Demographic Profile 165 5.3 Descriptive Statistic 168 5.4 Structural Equation Modelling 173 5.5 Two Stage Approach: Analysis and Results of Partial Least Square 174 5.5.1 Stage One: Measurement Model 175 5.5.2 Internal Consistency Reliability 176 5.5.3 Construct Validity 178 5.5.4 Convergent Validity 181 5.5.5 Discriminant Validity 182 5.5.6 Measurement Specification: Mindfulness 184 5.6 Stage Two: Structural Model 185 5.6.1 Path Coefficient 186 5.6.1(a) Path Coefficient: Communication Factors and Visitor Factors to Mindfulness 190 5.6.1(b) Path Coefficient: Communication Factors and Visitor Factors to Interpretive Outcome 194 5.6.1(c) Path Coefficient: Mindfulness to Interpretive Outcome 199 5.6.2 Coefficient of Determination: R2 Values 200 vii 5.6.3 Predictive Relevance (Q2) 203 5.6.4 Goodness of Fit (GoF) 206 5.7 Hypotheses Testing 207 5.8 Mediating Variable Effect 211 CHAPTER 6 – DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 6.1 Overview 214 6.2 Summary of Research Findings 214 6.3 Discussion of Research Findings 216 6.3.1 The Measure of Mindfulness in the Context of Heritage Tourism 216 6.3.2 Factors that Influence Mindfulness among Tourists at Heritage Sites 218 6.3.3 The Relationship between Communication and Visitor Factors towards Interpretive Outcome 223 6.3.4 The Relationship between Mindfulness and Interpretive Outcome 226 6.3.5 Mindfulness as mediator of the relationship between Communication Factors, Visitor Factors and Interpretive Outcome 227 6.3.6 Model of Mindfulness in the Context of Heritage Tourism 234 6.4 Contributions and Theoretical Implications 237 6.5 Managerial Implication 239 6.6 Thesis Limitation 240 6.7 Directions for Further Research 241 6.8 Conclusion 242 REFERENCES 248 viii APPENDICES APPENDIX A Pilot Test: In-depth Interview Questions APPENDIX B Pilot Test: Questionnaire APPENDIX C Self-administered Questionnaire APPENDIX D Common Method Bias LIST OF PUBLICATION ix LIST OF TABLES Page Table 2.1 Conceptualisation of Heritage Tourism 16 Table 2.2 Review of Mindfulness in Different Perspectives 37 Table 2.3 Definition of Mindfulness from Various Perspectives 42 Table 2.4 Definition of Interpretation from Various Perspectives 55 Table 2.5 Measure of Mindfulness 76 Table 2.6 Conceptual Framework 83 Table 3.1 Factor Loading for Ambience 103 Table 3.2 Factor Loading for Uses of Questions 103 Table 3.3 Factor Loading for Variety 103 Table 3.4 Factor Loading for Physical Orientation 103 Table 3.5 Factor Loading for Multisensory Media 103 Table 3.6 Factor Loading for Level of Interest 105 Table 3.7 Factor Loading for Familiarity 106 Table 3.8 Factor Loading for Visualisation 106 Table 3.9 Factor Loading for Emotional Connectedness 106 Table 3.10 Factor Loading for Sense of Belonging 106 Table 3.11 Factor Loading for Connection to Visitor 106 Table 3.12 Factor Loading for Mindfulness – Curiosity and Attention 108 Table 3.13 Factor Loading for Mindfulness – Alertness 109 Table 3.14 Factor Loading for Mindfulness – Emotional Engagement 109 Table 3.15 Factor Loading for Mindfulness – Openness and Flexibility 109 Table 3.16 Factor Loading for Behavioural 111 Table 3.17 Factor Loading for Cognitive 111 Table 3.18 Factor Loading for Affective 112 x Table 3.19 Factor Loading for Value 112 Table 3.20 Reliability of the Constructs 113 Table 3.21 Item Questions for Questionnaire Part C 121 Table 3.22 Item Questions for Questionnaire Part D 122 Table 3.23 Item Questions for Questionnaire Part E 123 Table 3.24 Item Questions for Questionnaire Part F 124 Table 3.25 Variety or Change Item Questions 127 Table 3.26 Multisensory Media Item Questions 128 Table 3.27 Novelty/Conflicts/ Surprise Item Questions 129 Table 3.28 Uses of Questions Item Questions 130 Table 3.29 Visitor Control Item Questions 131 Table 3.30 Connection to Visitor Item Questions 132 Table 3.31 Physical Orientation Item Questions 133 Table 3.32 Ambience Item Questions 134 Table 3.33 Level of Interest Item Questions 135 Table 3.34 Familiarity Item Questions 136 Table 3.35 Visiting Companion Item Questions 137 Table 3.36 Experience Item Questions 137 Table 3.37 Goal of Visit Item Questions 138 Table 3.38 Cultural Background Item Questions 139 Table 3.39 Calmness Item Questions 140 Table 3.40 Items for Mindfulness adapted from PMQ 141 Table 3.41 Items for Mindfulness adapted from FFMQ 141 Table 3.42 Items for Mindfulness adapted from MMS 144 Table 3.43 Items for Mindfulness adapted from Moscardo 145 xi Table 3.44 Items for Mindfulness adapted from TMS 145 Table 3.45 Item Questions for Interpretive Outcome – Cognitive 147 Table 3.46 Item Questions for Interpretive Outcome – Affective 147 Table 3.47 Item