UNDERSTANDING THE COMMUNITY BENEFITS OF MUNICIPAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAMS A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Douglas Ross Appler August 2011 © 2011 Douglas Ross Appler UNDERSTANDING THE COMMUNITY BENEFITS OF MUNICIPAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAMS Douglas Ross Appler, Ph.D. Cornell University 2011 Archaeology‟s ability to recover hidden information about the past creates many opportunities for engagement and collaboration with a variety of community groups. Within this context, few efforts at sustaining long-term relationships with the public have been as successful as the municipal archaeology programs found in Alexandria, VA; St. Augustine, FL; and Phoenix, AZ. For decades, these cities have successfully mixed the enthusiasm and curiosity of local residents, the professional and technical expertise of archaeologists, and the regulatory and structural support of local government in order to produce a variety of place-specific public benefits. Yet despite the sustained success of these programs, they have received surprisingly little attention in academic or professional circles. This dissertation begins an exploration of the social environment that surrounds the municipal archaeology programs in these three cities. The data used are drawn from archival and published sources, as well as from interviews with the members of the public, the archaeologists, and the city staff most strongly associated with the three programs. The historical information brings to the forefront the role of the public in the process of creating each program. In each case, members of a concerned public were responsible for taking the first steps toward making archaeology a city priority, and none of these programs could have taken their current shape or lasted as long as they have without the continued input and participation of private citizens. It also explores how zoning and the development review procedures in each city have been structured to allow for the recovery of archaeological information that would otherwise be destroyed during the construction process. The dissertation identifies some of the ways in which these archaeology programs have shaped other municipal amenities, such as local museums, parks, heritage walks or trails, and public art that interprets local history. This research contributes to the wider discourse linking archaeology and the public, and makes evident some of the ways in which the public benefits from having access to the archaeological process. iii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Douglas Ross Appler is a native of Hudson, New Hampshire. Growing up along the Merrimack River, surrounded by the former mill towns of Nashua, Manchester and Lowell, MA, he developed an interest in all things historic at an early age. This led him to pursue a B.A. in History and Political Science from Virginia Tech, which he completed in 1999. He subsequently continued to study at Virginia Tech, but enrolled in a graduate program that combined a Master‟s degree with two years of service in the Peace Corps. As a Peace Corps Volunteer, he worked as a municipal development volunteer in the town of Sacapulas, El Quiche, Guatemala. Shortly after returning to the United States, he completed his Master‟s degree in Urban and Regional Planning. After his Master‟s degree was complete, Appler moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where he worked at the Atlanta Regional Commission. He managed a program for ARC called the “Community Planning Academy” which introduced newly appointed and elected local government officials to current best practices in the planning field. Partly as a result of this job, he decided that working as a practicing public sector planner would be an appropriate next career step. While in Atlanta, he took night classes in Historic Preservation at Georgia State University. Appler then took a job as the County Planner in Madison County, just north of Athens, Georgia. Upon his predecessor‟s retirement, he became Planning and Zoning Director, and was able to lead the county to adopt a number of innovative ordinances. After working in Madison County for two years, he decided to return to graduate school to begin his doctoral studies in the fall of 2007. iv To: KLJ v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The last four years of research and writing were only possible because of the support, guidance and assistance of family, friends, colleagues, and colleagues who have become friends during the dissertation process. The members of my special committee deserve a great deal of credit for helping me to develop both as a scholar and as a writer. Michael Tomlan‟s early guidance required me to build a knowledge base in historic preservation and planning history that will continue to provide me direction as I move into my academic career. Sherene Baugher was extraordinarily generous with her professional knowledge and contacts in the world of public archaeology, and again, I look forward to applying this knowledge in my future work. Kathy Gleason‟s guidance has greatly influenced how I understand the relationship between experience and place, and I am also indebted to Kathy for allowing me to gain exposure to public archaeology as practiced in an entirely different social and political context from the one with which I was familiar. I look forward to continuing to work with my unofficial fourth committee member, Pam Cressey, of Alexandria Archaeology. Based on a phone call from out of the blue one spring afternoon, Pam offered me a summer internship and a chance to see how she and her colleagues used archaeology to engage the public, setting the stage for several years (so far) of productive collaboration. For years, Alexandria Archaeology has provided a model for how archaeology and history can be integrated with community building efforts. The program deserves far more credit than it receives for the role it has played in shaping modern Alexandria. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Carl Halbirt, the city archaeologist for St. Augustine, Florida, and to Todd Bostwick, the city archaeologist for Phoenix, Arizona. They were both very accommodating in fitting me into their schedules for multiple interviews, and both vi introduced me to others in their communities who would be able to share information about their experiences with archaeology in these cities. A “thank you” is also due to Charles Tingley, of the St. Augustine Historical Society‟s Research Library, to the members of the St. Augustine Archaeological Association, and to the many other residents of St. Augustine who were willing to share their stories and answer questions about their experiences with archaeology in St. Augustine. Similarly, Roger Lidman and the staff of the Pueblo Grande Museum in Phoenix were very generous with their time, as were several members of the Pueblo Grande Museum Auxiliary and the Phoenix chapter of the Arizona Archaeological Society. I also owe a considerable debt to Matt and Christina Bond, Dan Bastien and Liz Hester, and William Henry Miller for letting me stay at their houses during different stages of the research and writing process. The financial burden of research during the summer of 2009 was made considerably lighter by the Arch R. Winter Fellowship, a Hirsch Scholarship Travel Grant, and a travel grant from the Mario Einaudi Center for International Study. None of this would have been possible without the support of friends who were themselves at different stages of the same process. It is always good to know that you are not alone, regardless of whether your work is going well or poorly. A special thank you is also due to Krista Jacobsen, for providing many years worth of downtime and perspective at the end of every day. Of course, this dissertation is one of many results of the guidance and support of my parents, who over the years have made me feel like every decision I make is the right one, despite occasional evidence to the contrary. I was also aided in this process by remembering an observation that my Grandmother, Beulah Kline, made years ago, that turns out to be particularly relevant to a frequently overwhelmed Ph.D student: “Things will get better. They always do.” And they did. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH……………………………………………………………………..iii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………….v LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………...….ix INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………….....11 CHAPTER I The Evolving Relationship Between Archaeology and the Public in the United States………...39 CHAPTER II Municipal Archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia………………………………………………...79 CHAPTER III Municipal Archaeology in St. Augustine, Florida…………………………………………..….138 CHAPTER IV Municipal Archaeology in Phoenix, Arizona……………………………………………….….203 CHAPTER V Comparing Archaeological Protection Regulations in Alexandria, St. Augustine, and Phoenix………………………………………………………………………………..…....249 CHAPTER VI The Role of Municipal Archaeology Programs in Creating Community Assets.…………........281 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………..…..325 Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………………..333 Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………….….335 Appendix C……………………………………………………………………………………..339 viii Appendix D………………………………………………………………………………….… 350 References……………………………………………………………………………………... 354 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Filling Room, cannon, and reconstructed earthworks Figure 2: Richard J. Muzzrole and C. Mark Lawton Figure 3: Muzzrole, left, John