1 Acknowledgements We sincerely thank Mr. Mulick, Ms. Daly, and Mr. Scheiber for their advise, support, and creative ideas to the journal. We also thank Mr. Cornish for his effort and time to make this journal be published online. Moreover, we truly thank Bronx Science for providing us with the opportunity to spread physical science awareness in the student and staff community. We always hope that there is something to gain for each reader, whether it be a random fact or information that leads them in the direction of the sciences. The universe revolves around the physical science, as do we. Reactions Team 2015-2016 Joshua Choi, Kevin Turaczy, Phillip Kadeiv, Seokjoo Yoon, Ed- win Lin, Andrea Chan 2 Table of Contents ***Article of the Year: “Water on Mars”*** I. Engineering and Technology A. Making the World “Tic” with One Pacemaker at a Time B. Tailoring the Spectroscopic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires via Surface-C. C. Plasmon-Based Optical Engi- neering D. Blue LEDs E. Understanding the Safety of Hydraulic Fracturing F. The Bio-battery: Using Animal Excrements to Power our World G. Oil-Capturing Mesh Could Save Gulf of Mexico II. Physical Sciences A. Not Your Typical Chemical Bond—A New One, In Fact B. Why is there an aroma after rain? C. The Moon Has Two Tails D. Higgsogenesis: The Early Universe Theory 3 Streaks of Water on Mars! By Andrea Chan For decades, the possibility of life on Mars has "We found the hydrated salts only when been a major question left unanswered, but the seasonal features were widest...the detection of NASA's recent discovery of water on Mars has hydrated salts on these slopes means that water brought us one step closer towards the answer. plays a vital role in the formation of these Such evidence of the water’s existence on Mars streaks," said Lujendra Ojha of the Georgia Insti- tute of Technology (Georgia Tech) in Atlanta. was strongly supported by the new findings Ojha indicates that these streaks tend to darken from NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and flowed further down during the warm sea- (MRO) by allowing researchers to analyze the sons, but faded as the season became cooler. hydrated minerals located in streaks seen on Moreover, Ojha and his co-authors used images the planet. These streaks are known as recur- from the MRO's High Resolution Imaging Science ring slope lineae (RSL), and researchers real- Experiment (HiRISE) to document the RSL in dif- ized that the hydrated salts play a role in the ferent locations on Mars. With the addition of the appearance of the RSL. For instance, hydrated images from the HiRISE and MRO’s Compact salts lower the freezing point of the liquid Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars brines thus forming a shallow subsurface flow. (CRISM), they were able to mineral map the im- ages in order to observe the few signatures of hy- Furthermore, the darkening of the RSL is drated salts in the four relatively wide RSL loca- caused by water wicking towards the surface. tions. These observed spectral signatures were However, the hydrated salts do not obviously concluded to be hydrated salts known as perchlo- appear throughout the seasons of Mars. rates. This has been the first time ever that per- chlorates have been discovered in its hydrated form and from the orbit. The finding of water on Mars is a definite breakthrough that will have a huge impact on fur- ther discoveries and possible missions on Mars. Even Michael Meyer, lead scientist for NASA’s Mars Exploration Program at the agency’s head- quarters in Washington, stated “It seems that the more we study Mars, the more we learn how life could be supported and where there are resources to support life in the future.” Additionally, the next Mars rover will be launched in 2020, and the RSL is one the places ruled out for the landing site of the rover due to the possibility of potential SOURCES Martian habitats. Like many discoveries, water on Mars poses new problems and questions. For in- http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/09/28/ stance, scientists are still unsure where the water science/space/mars-nasa-flowing-water.html came from. Such past discoveries on Mars are not only considered to be a major achievement, but http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/29/science/space/ mars-life-liquid-water.html also a step closer in sending humans to Mars. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms- evidence-that-liquid-water-flows-on-today-s-mars 4 Making the World “Tic” with One Pacemaker at a Time By Daisy Duan It is not a foreign idea today for to introduce newer and less invasive many people who suffer from heart methods of implanting the device, problems to depend on the implant of an including through the blood vessels on the artificial cardiac pacemaker to relieve arm via a cardiac catheter that will them of pain. Once the size of a matchbox, transport it back to the heart. What causes the newest version of the cardiac device these pacemakers to remain intact and invented by Brian Lindman and his fellow stay on the heart is its miniature hooks colleagues at Washington University that gently clamp onto the heart tissue. School of Medicine is now the size of a Both tiny pacemakers are now tested in Tic-Tac. human trials and device manufacturers The first participant to have such a claim that these batteries will last up to device implanted was in 2013. Medtronic, eight or ten years when running at full which is a device manufacturer, had capacity. In fact, the energy source of such invented a device 24 millimeters long and cardiac devices has become such a 0.75 cubic centimeters in volume, which problematic concern that scientists in makes it approximately one tenth the size various academic institutions are of a pacemaker. St. Jude Medical, which is beginning to develop a piezoelectric another manufacturer of a pacemaker has pacemaker, which harnessing the entered the race in inventing more mechanical energy of the beating heart modern, highly efficient cardiac devices and convert it into electrical energy and bought a startup called Nanostim, needed to send electrical impulses making it 41 millimeters long and one whenever the source of life decides to fail. cubic centimeter in volume. But it isn’t the size of the pacemaker that Source: is impressive - it’s only he beginning of a whole new medical revolution. With http://www.technologyreview.com/ pacemakers feeling and looking so news/522306/worlds-smallest-pacemaker-can- be-implanted-without-surgery/ microscopic, doctors are given the ability 5 Tailoring the Spectroscopic Properties of Semi- conductor Nanowires via Surface-Plasmon- Based Optical Engineering *** By Phillip Kadaev Rice University scientists have invented chemical vapor deposition, which is a a novel cathode that may make cheap, flexible chemical process used to produce high- dye-sensitized solar cells practical. Materials performance solid materials. Then the scientist Jun Lou created a cathode out of graphene is heated again and the carbon nanotubes that are bonded to graphene to atoms in the aerosol feedstock attach replace expensive and brittle platinum-based themselves to the graphene and allow the materials that are used in current solar cells. nanotubes to grow. Dye-sensitized solar cells have been The significance of this new hybrid studied since 1988, due to their low cost and material is that it is more efficient, which ability to convert photons to electrons that makes it suitable for commercial can be used to generate electricity. Dye- production of solar panels. In addition, sensitized solar cells function by placing the hybrid material has less contact organic dyes on top of conductive titanium resistance with the electrolyte which dioxide particles in the cell, which then allows electrons to flow more freely. The absorb photons and produce electrons that new material’s charge-transfer resistance flow out of the cell for use. Dye-sensitized is 20 times lower than that of traditionally solar cells have many advantages over more used platinum cathodes. The hybrid’s has efficient solar cells, particularly that they are a large surface area of 2,000 square cheap to produce and they can be used in dim meters per gram, which provides a highly light and cloudy conditions. Dye-sensitized conductive path for electrons and make it cells are so efficient that they can be powered suitable for solar cell production. by normal light. Therefore, dye-sensitized Rice University researchers were solar cells have many potential applications able to build solar cells with nanotubes of and uses due to their ability to function in varying lengths in less than an hour. non-optimal conditions. However, the researchers discovered that The graphene nanotube hybrid that the solar cells developed from the longest was used for the novel dye-sensitized solar nanotubes produced the best results. The cells was created in 2012, by James Tour, the new dye-sensitized cells were also found inventor of the material. The graphene to be 20 percent more efficient at nanotube hybrid was grown through converting sunlight into electrical energy 6 than platinum-based cells. The researchers at Rice University concluded that hybrid graphene nanotubes were more efficient in converting sunlight to usable energy and they were cheaper to produce, which indicates that these solar cells may one day replace The graphene nanotube hybrid called “James’ bond” traditional platinum-based ones. invented by Rice University researchers. Blue LEDs By Joshua Choi Apple has built novel models of the highly popular iPhone while introducing other appli- ances such the iMac, iPod, and iPad.