Morality, Religion, and the Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari Author: Ian Alexander Moore Faculty Mentor: Richard Ruderman, Department of Political Science, College of Arts and Sciences Department: Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Department of Philosophy and Religion Studies, College of Arts and Sciences; College of Music; & Honors College The Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari 2 Bio: Ian Alexander Moore is an undergraduate at the University of North Texas, where he is majoring in German, music, and philosophy, and minoring in political science and Spanish. He is also a teaching assistant for German language classes. His current academic interests include political philosophy and metaphysics. Recent presentations include “Lived Space in Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty” at the 2nd Annual LSU Philosophy Conference; “Does Maimonides Disagree with Aristotle on the Question Concerning Particular Providence?” at UNT’s University Scholars Day; and “Morality, Religion and the Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari” at the North Texas Philosophical Association 2009 conference. After he graduates, he plans to enter a Ph.D. program in philosophy and subsequently become a professor. The Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari 3 Abstract: Judah Halevi’s primary philosophical text, The Kuzari, recounts in dialogue form the conversion of the king of the Khazars, al Khazari. This paper has two goals: to elucidate the meaning of Leo Strauss’ statement that “moral man as such is the potential believer” as it pertains to The Kuzari; and to show how, through an esoteric style of writing, Halevi does not argue against the tenability of the philosophic way of life — despite the apparent evidence to the contrary — but, instead, shows where that way of life falls short, at least with regard to prescribing a definitive moral code. While, on Halevi’s account, philosophy cannot provide the categorical imperatives for which al Khazari yearns, religion, or rather Judaism, can. The Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari 4 Introduction In his essay on the law of reason in Judah Halevi’s The Kuzari, Leo Strauss concludes with the trenchant, if enigmatic, statement that “moral man as such is the potential believer.”1 Although he does not fully explicate this statement, its importance for understanding the central issue of morality in The Kuzari cannot be overestimated. This paper attempts to elucidate its meaning as it relates to the character after whom the book is named, al Khazari. The only time that Halevi refers to himself while addressing the reader is at the beginning of Part One of The Kuzari. He explains that he was asked to proffer arguments against the philosophers, the followers of other, i.e., non-Jewish religions, and sectarian Jews. Recalling the conversion to Judaism of the king of the Khazars, al Khazari — about which Halevi “had once heard”— Halevi says that he decided to present, in dialogue form, the exchange between, first, the king and a philosopher, then the king and a Christian scholastic, thereafter the king and a doctor of Islam, and, finally, the king and a Jewish rabbi.2 Halevi provides two accounts of dreams that came to al Khazari. In the first account, he writes that it appeared as if an angel addressed the king. The angel said: “Thy way of thinking is indeed pleasing to the Creator, but not thy way of acting.”3 After the king devoted himself wholeheartedly to the Khazar religion, Halevi explains that the angel reappeared to him, again saying: “Thy way of thinking is pleasing to God, but not thy way of acting.”4 This led the king to inquire into different beliefs and religions, eventually leading to his conversion to Judaism. In the second account, Halevi writes that “when the King of Khazar (as is related) dreamt that his way of thinking was agreeable to God, but not his way of acting, and was commanded in the same dream to seek the God-pleasing work, he inquired of a philosopher concerning his religious persuasion.”5 In the first account, note that the as if is missing when the angel reappears. In the The Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari 5 second, Halevi omits the angel’s appearance altogether. While it may seem irrelevant or perhaps trifling to emphasize these omissions, their significance will become clearer in what follows. Morality and the Philosophic Way of Life Al Khazari first meets with a philosopher. This is important because it shows the king’s affinity for philosophy in comparison to the revealed religions. In their conversation, the philosopher explains that God neither favors nor dislikes individuals. Moreover, God does not even know anything about individuals or listen to their prayers.6 This rather blunt remark must have disappointed the king because, in effect, it implies that the king’s dreams were misleading. Furthermore, it implies that precisely that which the king desires, namely, a way of acting that is pleasing to God, is illusory because, according to the philosopher, God neither derives pleasure from, nor desires, any particular way of acting on the part of humans. Nevertheless, the philosopher does offer some reassurance. He says, “The philosopher, however, who is equipped with the highest capacity, receives through it the advantages of disposition, intelligence and active power, so that he wants nothing to make him perfect.”7 He even goes so far as to say that the “. perfect man [i.e., the philosopher] whose soul, after having been purified, has grasped the inward truths of all branches of science, has thus become equal to an angel. .”8 Although the king does not disagree with anything the philosopher says — indeed, the king is convinced by the philosopher’s words — he is not willing to accept the implications of those words, namely, as the philosopher says, a life of contemplation, without concern “. about the forms of thy humility or religion or worship, or the word or language or actions thou employest.”9 Despite the rewards of the contemplative life, which include contentment, humility, meekness, and every other praiseworthy inclination,10 Al Khazari says: “Thy words are convincing, yet they do not correspond to what I wish to find.”11 But why? How The Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari 6 can he disregard that of which he is convinced? Although he turns to other matters and apparently dismisses the philosopher’s arguments, he never forgets the philosopher’s remarks. Nonetheless, there must be something in addition to words, even words used in rational argumentation, which the king desires. The king must have known beforehand, at least to some extent, what the philosopher would say with regard to his dream, for this was not the first time that the king conversed with a philosopher. We know this from a remark made by al Khazari in the last part of the book, where he says that he formerly consulted with philosophers, i.e., with not only the philosopher presently discussed, but with others as well.12 Yet, if he had an idea as to what the philosopher would say, why would he consult him at all? What else did he expect to hear? Perhaps he was looking for a final confirmation, through the philosopher’s insufficient response, to inquire into the revealed religions. Indeed, although the philosopher, somewhat tongue-in-cheek, says that after union with the “Active Intellect,” the king might receive “. the knowledge of what is hidden through true dreams and positive visions”, the king ignores this remark completely.13 The only explanation for this is that the king must have picked up on the philosopher’s irony. For shortly after this statement, al Khazari, seemingly somewhat stubbornly, wonders why the philosophers have never received the gift of divine prophecy. Rather than press the philosopher about his view on this matter, which would most certainly be a negation of prophecy altogether, the king, on the basis of the putative bestowal of prophecy on non-philosophers, says that “. the divine influence as well as the souls have a secret which is not identical with what thou sayest, O Philosopher.”14 It seems that he says this not so much as to refute the philosopher, but rather to reassure himself that his dream was true. The Lure of the Ascetic in Halevi’s The Kuzari 7 We are now in a position to determine what the king desires. He says to the philosopher that he longs for actions that in themselves are pleasing to God, rather than actions conducted because they, as the philosopher says, “. will help thee to effect truth, to gain instruction, and to become similar to this Active Intellect.”15 Al Khazari replies that he is looking for “. a way of acting, pleasing by its very nature, but not through the medium of intentions”, i.e., a morality that is good in itself.16 It should be noted, however, that even if al Khazari’s dreams were veridical, his desire to find a way of acting that is pleasing by its very nature did not come directly from his dreams. The dreams only indicated that his way of acting was not agreeable to God. Thus, his longing comes from his own inclination. Since the philosopher would never agree to a morality good in itself and actually says that the king is free to choose whatever forms of religion, humility or worship he wants, the king seeks out practitioners of the revealed religions who, on the basis of their affirmation of prophecy, can vindicate the king’s dreams, as well as, he hopes, teach him the type of moral code for which he yearns.