University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 12-1-2003 Mediating The oM del: Women's Microenterprise And Microcredit In Tobago, West Indies Cheryl A. Levine University of South Florida Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the American Studies Commons Scholar Commons Citation Levine, Cheryl A., "Mediating The odeM l: Women's Microenterprise And Microcredit In Tobago, West Indies" (2003). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/1417 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Mediating The Model: Women's Microenterprise And Microcredit In Tobago, West Indies by Cheryl A. Levine A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthorpology College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Kevin A. Yelvington, Ph.D. Trevor W. Purcell, Ph.D. Roberta D. Baer, Ph.D. Marilyn Myerson, Ph.D. Cheryl R. Rodriguez, Ph.D. Date of Approval: December 1, 2003 Keywords: Caribbean, feminist and economic anthropology, international development, self-employment © Copyright 2003, Cheryl A. Levine Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Richard and Marlene Levine. Their love and support knows no boundaries, as my parents have always “been there for me” no matter how far I have traveled. I wish to thank them for the support and encouragement that they extended to me in every way imaginable. I was honored to briefly share my fieldwork experience with my parents who made the long journey from California to the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago to join me for two weeks. In appreciation for the spirit of education and independence they have instilled in me, I am proud to have successfully completed my goals of education, fieldwork, and dissertation. Mom and Dad, thank you and I love you. Also I am deeply grateful to my surrogate mother and dear friend “Marie” who not only looked after me during fieldwork, but also supported me emotionally and academically as my most important resource for interpreting Tobago culture. She openly shared with me both the joys and pains of Tobago womanhood. She gently sheltered my naiveté and coached my developing appreciation of Tobago’s distinctive and often subtle cultural quirks. Both “Marie” and her husband “Max” opened their home and heart to me, were always eager to lend a hand whether I needed assistance battling an invading centipede in my home, a ride to the market, or someone to pick me up when the ferry came in at Scarborough. To Marie and Max I extend a very loving “thank you.” Acknowledgements Funding for my dissertation fieldwork was supported by a US Student Fulbright Award from the US Department of State, Bureau of Education and Cultural Affairs to the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 1998-1999. Also, in 1998 the University of South Florida, Latin America and Caribbean Studies Program provided a Research Assistance Award to support my fieldwork. I am grateful to my dissertation committee for believing in me. The helpful advice and guidance of my committee was useful, but knowing that they had faith in my ability to successfully accomplish both fieldwork and the dissertation provided the necessary motivation to complete this accomplishment. Also, I thank my many friends who encouraged, supported, and kept after me to complete the dissertation. Special mention goes to Keith McNeal, Vincent Goldberg, and Maarit Laitnen Forde whose fieldwork experience overlapped with my own and provided a very supportive network. I extend my gratitude to my supervisor and coworkers at the U.S. Department of Housing, Office of Policy Development and Research who provided a supportive and understanding work environment while writing my dissertation. In Trinidad and Tobago, I am grateful for the support and guidance provided by Rhoda Reddock and Bridget Brereton from the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. In Tobago, special acknowledgement goes to staff of the Small Business Development Company, FundAid, and Tobago House of Assembly, Divisions of Health, Community Development, and Marketing. These agencies graciously made available to me their knowledge and services, provided access to many of their programs for study, and granted access to their client lists for interviews. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ......................................................................................................................v Abstract............................................................................................................................. vi Chapter One: Introduction and Objectives of the Study...............................................1 A. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY AND PRELIMINARY RESEARCH ........................................ 1 B. FIELDWORK................................................................................................................. 5 C. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY .......................................... 8 D. DELINEATING THE STUDY ......................................................................................... 12 Chapter Two: Theoretical Perspective ..........................................................................17 A. ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY..................................................................................... 17 Formalist/Substantivist Debate................................................................................. 18 Formal/Informal Economy........................................................................................ 25 Formalization of the Informal Sector ....................................................................... 29 Women’s Participation in the Informal Sector ......................................................... 37 B. FEMINISMS ................................................................................................................ 43 Survey of Critical Feminist Theory........................................................................... 44 Feminist Anthropology.............................................................................................. 53 Praxis Informed by Critical Feminist Theory........................................................... 59 Feminist Critique of International Development...................................................... 67 Chapter Three: Literature Review.................................................................................77 A. INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND PRACTICE .......................................... 78 Women in International Development (WID)........................................................... 78 Grameen Bank Model ............................................................................................... 89 Generalizability of the Microcredit Model ............................................................... 99 Cultural Context...................................................................................................... 110 B. CARIBBEAN STUDIES............................................................................................... 127 Cultural Diffusion/Historical.................................................................................. 129 Social Welfare or Social Pathology........................................................................ 133 Personal Choice and Adaptation............................................................................ 135 Afro-Caribbean Women’s Survival and Adaptive Strategies.................................. 139 i C. A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOBAGO, W.I........................................................................ 149 The Most Fought Over Island in the Caribbean (1498-1800)................................ 152 Decline of Sugar and Ward of Trinidad (1800-1960) ............................................ 163 Development Policy and Politics in the 1950s and 1960s...................................... 177 Hurricane Flora and Central Government Policy (1963-1980)............................. 185 Tobago’s Tourism Development through the Twentieth Century........................... 202 D. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ON WOMEN IN TOBAGO............................................... 223 Cultural Context of Tobago, W.I............................................................................. 223 Peasantry Remembered .......................................................................................... 225 Modernization and Secondary Education............................................................... 257 Tertiary Education, Training Opportunities, and Female Leadership................... 271 Interpersonal Dynamics.......................................................................................... 283 Summary of Women’s Working Roles..................................................................... 304 Chapter Four: Methods.................................................................................................308 A. SAMPLING ..............................................................................................................