EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL FITNESS AND ON-ICE PERFORMANCE IN DEVELOPMENTAL FIGURE SKATERS by REGAN TAYLOR B.Sc., University of the Fraser Valley 2005 B.Ed., Simon Fraser University 2006 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTURAL STUDIES (Kinesiology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) February 2016 ©Regan Taylor, 2016 ABSTRACT Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between physical fitness and skill related fitness compared to on ice performance of developmental figure skaters. Methods: A total of ten basic off-ice assessments were administered, including skill-related physical fitness tests of agility (T-Test, Hexagon Test), and balance (Stork Stand); as well as health-related physical fitness tests, including: flexibility (Seated Reach), muscular endurance (the One Minute Sit-Ups, One Minute Modified Push-Ups, the Plank), muscular strength (Hand Grip), and power (the Timed Tuck Jumps, Vertical Jump). On-ice assessments will include a speed test and acceleration test to determine skating ability, and assessments of four elements; the axel jump, the back spin, camel spin, and the sit spin. Subjects: Twenty eight developmental female figure skaters between the ages of 6 and 14 who competed in the STAR 2, STAR 3, STAR 4, or STAR 5 categories as outlined by the BC Section Competition criteria (part of the Learn To Train Stage of the Skate Canada Long Term Athlete Development Model) were recruited. Conclusions: Skaters in the axel group (n=9) performed significantly better in physical fitness tests of balance, muscular strength (vertical jump), muscular endurance (timed tuck jumps, sit-ups, plank), and flexibility (seated reach). As well, the axel skaters were stronger skaters (1-lap speed test and spin tests). Regression analysis showed correlations between vertical jump and the on-ice speed test, the 30-second timed tuck jumps and acceleration as well as the T-test for agility and the 1-lap speed test. ii PREFACE This dissertation is an original, intellectual work by Regan Taylor. Shannon Bredin was involved in the earlier stages and contributed as manuscript edits on Chapters 1-3 during the proposal. Maria Gallo and Lauren Couture contributed to manuscript edits for all chapters in the final review stages. Shayestah Jahanfar contributed by clarifying the statistical analyses. Chapter 3 is a Systematic Review requiring its own separate abstract as a separate document within this thesis. Research was conducted under Certificate H14 – 02945: Figure Skater Physical Fitness and Performance as granted by the Okanagan Research Ethics Board Office of Research Services iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... ii PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... xv GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................. xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER ONE THESIS INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Chapter Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The Historical Evolution of the Sport ............................................................................................ 3 1.3 Rationale for Study ....................................................................................................................... 8 1.3.1 Researcher Positionality ........................................................................................................ 8 1.3.2 Addressing Gaps in Current Literature ................................................................................ 10 1.4 Thesis Investigation .................................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Research Questions and Hypothesis .......................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS UNDERLYING THE RESEARCH ......................................... 15 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 15 2.2 Early Specialization ..................................................................................................................... 15 2.2.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 24 iv 2.3 Long Term Athlete Development ............................................................................................... 24 2.3.1 The Long Term Athlete Development Pathway .................................................................. 25 2.3.2 Skate Canada’s LTAD ........................................................................................................... 28 2.4 Constraints: A Model for Examining Skill Acquisition ................................................................. 38 2.4.1 The Emergence of Required Elements in Figure Skating ..................................................... 42 2.5 Required Elements in Developmental Figure Skating ................................................................ 45 2.5.1 The Axel Jump ...................................................................................................................... 45 2.5.2 Back Spin .............................................................................................................................. 48 2.5.3 Sit Spin ................................................................................................................................. 50 2.5.4 Camel Spin ........................................................................................................................... 52 2. 6 Physical Fitness and Prior Testing of Figure Skaters .................................................................. 54 2.6.1 Health-Related Fitness Components ................................................................................... 56 2.6.2 Skill-Related Fitness Components ....................................................................................... 64 2.7 Testing Physical Fitness in Figure Skating ................................................................................... 69 2.8 Other Figure Skating Research Areas ......................................................................................... 70 2.8.1 Kinematics of Elements as Task Constraints ....................................................................... 70 2.8.2 Cognitive Abilities of Figure Skaters as Functional Constraints ........................................... 71 2.8.3 Age of Menarche ................................................................................................................. 72 2.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 73 CHAPTER THREE SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF PHYSICAL FITNESS IN FIGURE SKATERS ............................. 75 v 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 75 3.2 Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 76 3.2.1 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ........................................................................................... 76 3.2.2 Search Strategy .................................................................................................................... 76 3.2.3. Screening ............................................................................................................................ 77 3.2.4. Data Extraction ................................................................................................................... 77 3.3. Results ....................................................................................................................................... 79 3.3.1. Investigation Characteristics .............................................................................................. 79 3.3.2 Participant Characteristics ................................................................................................... 82 3.3.3 Health-Related and Skill-Related Measures of Physical