ECOPORNOGRAPHY AND THE COMMODIFICATION OF EXTINCTION: THE RHETORIC OF NATURAL HISTORY FILMMAKING, 1895-PRESENT A Dissertation by LISA NICOLE D’AMICO Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, M. Jimmie Killingsworth Committee Members, Sally Robinson Janet P. McCann Robert Shandley Head of Department, Nancy Bradley Warren August 2013 Major Subject: English Copyright 2013 Lisa Nicole D’Amico ABSTRACT This dissertation builds upon the relatively young fields of visual and environmental rhetoric and analyzes the rhetoric of natural history filmmaking, focusing on the ways in which the genre illustrates the complex relationship between contemporary culture and the environment. Each text demonstrates how the constructs of “nature” and “wilderness” perform necessary cultural work by representing particular ideals that change to meet the public’s shifting needs. Nature performs various roles, serving as a source of knowledge, solace, wonder, mystery, anxiety, truth, identity, and affirmation. The dominance and immediacy of visual culture make the natural history film, along with advertising, one of the most significant sources of meaning regarding the natural world. These films employ familiar syntactic and semantic cues such as sentimental parent/offspring interactions, authoritative narration that limits the ability of the audience to interpret freely, and a musical score that influences the viewer’s emotional response to certain scenes. The net result of these rhetorical practices is a distancing of the viewer from the natural world that destabilizes the attempts of many eco-political programs to emphasize the interconnectedness of ecological systems and their components. The emergent genre of big-budget nature films (BBNFs) is a distinctly modern and extremely popular take on natural history filmmaking that has more in common with summer blockbusters and wildlife theme parks than its predecessors with an unprecedented ability to influence public perception of the natural world. Even as ii environmental concerns become increasingly dire, the BBNF tends to commodify death and extinction, avoid political engagement, reduce engagement with nature to its most sentimental and violent moments, perpetuate the perceived separation between humans and their environment, and provide a soothing escape to a virtual environment that too often seems unaffected by climate change and habitat destruction. The BBNF has the potential to undermine environmental and conservation efforts. It also exemplifies what some ecocritics have termed “ecopornography,” an exploitative representation that objectifies its subjects, encourages viewers to develop identifications with unrealistic images rather than their real-world analogs, and helps enable unethical behavior toward the environment and nonhuman animals. At stake in this dissertation is a deeper understanding of how natural history filmmaking affects the public’s awareness of (and role in) the environment. iii DEDICATION To William Victor D’Amico, my favorite traveling companion To my sister, Susan Michelle Edmonds, who gets me like no one else does To my mother, Shirley Connell Edmonds, whose love never wavers In Memory Loren Duane Edmonds (1941-1997) Who always told me I could do anything iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is difficult to imagine that this dissertation would have reached completion without the support of many colleagues, faculty, family, and friends. I would first like to thank my mother for her encouragement, which means so very much to me and was a great comfort during the most challenging points in this process. I am also profoundly grateful to my father, for the many, many trips to the local library, and for instilling in me the values that propelled me through my undergraduate and graduate studies. I know he would be proud. Words cannot express my gratitude for my sister, Susan, who never for a moment wavered in her belief that I would be successful in this endeavor. Thank you for listening to my hopes, fears, frustrations, and successes with the love and understanding that only a sister can provide. Knowing that you are only a phone call away means more to me than you could ever know. I owe a special thanks to the members of my extended family who always express their support and love, especially Jenn and Becky D’Amico, Amy and Mary Hopper, and Antoinette Eve. I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Jimmie Killingsworth, and my committee members, Dr. Sally Robinson, Dr. Janet McCann, and Dr. Robert Shandley, for their guidance and support throughout the course of this research. I am also grateful to Dr. Anne Morey, who offered insight and direction in my research into early films. Had it not been for my classes with each of these remarkable professors, this dissertation v would not exist. To Dr. Killingsworth in particular I am deeply indebted for encouraging me to pursue not only this field of study, but this project in particular, which has been, from beginning to end, a true labor of love. I would also like to thank Dr. Britt Mize and Dr. Nandra Perry for their ongoing support and guidance. My friends and colleagues in the graduate program at Texas A&M had an enormous impact on this project. I would like to thank Dr. Adrienne Foreman, my “conductor of light,” for her feedback, advice, support, and amazing ability to keep me sane through an intense writing process. I would also like to thank Galen Wilson and Dr. Amy Larsen for their wise counsel. Many thanks to Melissa Elston (and Miss Gigi Elston-Gove), Dr. Jessica Durgan, Dr. Gary Rees, Yonggi Kim, and Leigh Bernacchi. In 1997, as a college freshman at Wichita State University, I joined the academic quiz team, where I met a mysterious and taciturn man whose intelligence and good looks I found both intriguing and a little intimidating. Sixteen years later, that man is my husband, and our lives together have been nothing short of wonderful. Together with our cats, Dinah and Bobcat, we have tackled challenges small and large and become all the stronger for it. I cannot thank Bill enough for his love, support, and understanding, and for random Family Guy quotes just when I need them. I love you. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. vii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION: A DISCOURSE IN CRISIS ......................................... 1 CHAPTER II A GENEALOGY OF NATURAL HISTORY FILMMAKING: TRACING THE ROOTS FROM ROME TO THE 1940S .............................................. 32 A History of Commodification and Bloody Spectacle ................................................ 37 The Nature Film in Context ......................................................................................... 42 Early Nature Documentaries: Adventures in a New Medium ...................................... 46 Great White (Photo) Hunters and Their Prey: The Expedition Film ........................... 62 Taking Flight: Natural History Films of the 1910s-1940s ........................................... 83 Closing ......................................................................................................................... 91 CHAPTER III “TRUTHINESS” AND THE CULTURE OF LONGING: NATURE FILMS OF THE 1940S-PRESENT ................................................................................. 93 A Golden Age for Natural History Filmmaking ........................................................ 111 Sir David Attenborough: Ambassador for Nature ..................................................... 127 The Nature Film as We Know It Today ..................................................................... 137 Closing ....................................................................................................................... 146 CHAPTER IV ‘ART WITH WORK TO DO’: AN X-RATED RHETORIC OF ECOPORNOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 148 Mander and the Origins of Ecopornography .............................................................. 150 Decontextualization and the Commodification of Desire .......................................... 154 Replication: More Nature than Nature/More Sex than Sex ....................................... 182 Disconnection and Interruption .................................................................................. 191 Closing: A Rhetoric of Ecopornography .................................................................... 206 vii CHAPTER V NATURAL PLACES AND VIRTUAL SPACES: COMMODIFICATION OF EXTINCTION AND THE RHETORIC OF THE BIG- BUDGET NATURE FILM ............................................................................................ 210 Defining the Big-Budget Nature Film as an Emergent Genre