BETWEEN MORBIDITY AND DECADENCE Belgian Symbolism Ralph Gleis Fig. 1 Fernand Khnopff The Caresses(detail), 1896, oil on canvas, 50 × 150 cm, Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels “Some call it decadence, as if it were the last escape of desires found himself confronted and exposed to a completely new from a dying culture and the sensation of death. Others call it reality. By the end of the century, the optimism of progress Symbolism.” This is how Hermann Bahr summed up the dif- linked to industrialisation had been crushed and the pro- ferent assessments of the new artistic avant-garde in his Stud- claimed and expected total control of nature by science and all costs from clear reality, into the dark, the foreign and as liberation from the burden of tradition and norms, partic- ien zur Kritik der Moderne (Studies on the Critique of Modern- technology exposed as an illusion, prompting the emergence the hidden – that is the acknowledged slogan for numerous ularly in the realm of art. At the same time, this evoked a ism), published in 1894.1 The categories of morbidity and of a broad front against materialism and positivism. The un- artists today.”5 sense of a final act of resistance, of sensual pleasure and exu- decadence thus seem to provide an outline for a new art istic veiling of the external secrets of the world and the loss of the The late nineteenth century was a typical age of transi- berance before the presumed collapse. The appeal of the development at the end of the nineteenth century that re- inner magic through scientification and rationalisation had tion and decadence. For many, the erosion of old traditions dance on the volcano – l’apocalypse joyeuse 7 – became the sponded to the challenges of modernism. turned against metaphysical approaches to explanation and and social conventions through industrialisation and social guiding principle, the Symbolists elevating the crisis to cult A world in upheaval – this was the fundamental experi- omitted transcendent fixed points,2 radically thought out to conflicts led to the fragmentation of society, and also of the status. The feeling of belonging to a sinking world, to the last ence of the people at the fin de siècle. Never before – so it was the end in a statement coined by Friedrich Nietzsche: “God individual himself, and aroused fears about the challenges of generation in a long sequence of pasts, and the simultane- believed – had the fundamental categories in economy, tech- is dead”.3 In a reflex to this crisis of faith, numerous attempts the future. Orientation was sought in a panoramic view, ous departure for something new found its sublimation in nology and science, as well as in society and culture, changed were made at a new interpretation of the world, which often whereby not only were nostalgic glances cast in the direction an aesthetic exaggeration of the eerily beautiful. The pruri- so rapidly and so substantially. The search for an adequate led to a new kind of spirituality. The enigmatic, the mystical of the past, but there was also a longing for a vision for the ent gaze into the abyss of a saturated society, which mean- form of expression for the associated attitude to life marked and the occult unfolded their greatest attraction, whereby art future. Like a motto for the fin de siècle, one of the greatest while believed itself to be in a crisis, the morbid attraction by rapid change determined many tendencies of artistic mod- was given a new meaning and a special role. In Symbolism, Belgian Symbolists, Fernand Khnopff, had the words “Passé – between Eros and Thanatos: these are thematic fields in art ernism. While some paid homage to progress and shifted the world of appearances was now interpreted – also picking Futur” inscribed above the entrance to his villa in Brussels.6 which found their expression in the late nineteenth century, completely to the present, others perceived this development up on the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer4 – as a symbol His art also understood the present as a transitory moment, especially in Symbolism. as a crisis in an ambivalent situation between the urge for the of a deeper reality, and art as a mediator between the various as a mixture of wistful past experience and anxious expect- new and the pain of parting from the old. levels. In what amounted to artistic escapism, individual fan- ation of the future. The loss of traditional certainties within Brussels and the emergence of the avant-gardes The dissolution of traditional ties was accompanied by a tastic dreamworlds emerged as counter-images to the real a world that had previously been experienced as static was Symbolism developed as an international art trend with sev- strong sense of insecurity. Not infrequently, the individual world. Contemporary criticism attested: “Go on, get away at described by some as decline and moral decay, but by others eral centres, of which Paris and Brussels were the first and 18 19 Fig. 2 Paul Gauguin Vision after the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel), 1888, oil on canvas, 74.4 × 93.1 cm, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh arguably the most influential. In Belgium, the early days of tury, on the occasion of an exhibition at the gallery of the art Symbolism coincided with the secessionist aspirations of the dealer Gurlitt in Berlin, the magazine Die Kunst für Alle de- group Les XX (Les Vingt), founded in 1883, and its annual ex- clared: “The true home of Symbolism in poetry and paint- hibitions from 1884 onwards. Likewise in 1884, Joris-Karl ing is Belgium.”12 Huysmans’s À rebours,8 the roman-à-clef of Decadent litera- As the first industrialised country on the European con- ture, was published in Paris. In numerous text passages, it tinent and as a colonial power in Central Africa, Belgium contains descriptions of the most important forms of expres- experienced considerable economic growth and prosperity sion of Symbolism in the fields of literature, music and the during the course of the nineteenth century. The social real- visual arts. In the novel, painters such as Gustave Moreau and ity in Belgium, however, was marked by extreme contrasts Odilon Redon are just as central as the literature of Charles between the proletarian coal-mining areas of Wallonia and Baudelaire, Gustave Flaubert, Stéphane Mallarmé and Jules the poor rural regions of Flanders on the one hand, and ele- Barbey d’Aurevilly. It is hardly surprising that Huysmans had gant, sophisticated cities such as Brussels, Ghent and Antwerp anticipated the analysis and attempts at a theoretical version on the other.13 Brussels’ rise to become a European art me- of this trend, since he was already known as an art critic be- tropolis was due above all to its multi-layered, intensive fore he began his literary work. But it was Jean Moréas, with connections to the neighbouring countries of France, Eng- secessionist group, it was open to any form of new art and in- after illustrators of the avant- garde in Brussels’s literary cir- his article “Le Symbolisme”, published in the Parisian Figaro land, Germany and the Netherlands.14 Equally decisive were fluenced the coming development of art far beyond the coun- cles”,18 and Vincent van Gogh succeeded in selling his only in 1886,9 who would be the first to present a programmatic the Belgian capital’s liberality and an open-minded attitude try’s borders.17 The twenty members, predominantly Belgians work during his lifetime at the Salon of Les XX in 1890 (p. 45, definition of Symbolism. Whereas this referred essentially to towards the new.15 such as Khnopff, James Ensor, Félicien Rops and Théo Van fig. 1).19 In 1894, La Libre Esthétique continued the efforts of literature, the Belgian Émile Verhaeren applied the term to In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, a wide Rysselberghe, but also Auguste Rodin and Jan Toorop, invited Les XX and further increased its internationality. At the fin de painting in an article on Fernand Khnopff in 1887.10 variety of artists’ groups and associations were founded in further colleagues from Europe to participate in each exhib- siècle, Brussels thus became an important hub of European The close exchange between the art metropolises of Brussels, the common aim of which was to establish artistic ition. Among these were artists as diverse as Camille Pissarro, artistic development and a meeting place for Symbolists. Paris and Brussels was already conspicuous at the time of avant-gardes.16 A vibrant environment of cross-genre and Paul Cézanne, Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin (fig. 2), Walter Brussels, for its part, also provided many impulses of its the initial formation of Symbolism. This bond was strength- interdisciplinary experimental set-ups facilitated a great Crane and James McNeill Whistler. The financially strong own. Khnopff’s work can be regarded as exemplary for the ened by literature as the basis of the new current: writers plurality of possibilities and forms of expression and allowed marketplace of Brussels was definitely lucrative as an exhib- mutual inspirations, since he functioned as a crucial link such as Georges Rodenbach, Maurice Maeterlinck and Ver- artists to develop their individual styles and to find novel, ition venue for the international participants. Already estab- along the London – Paris – Brussels – Vienna axis. He im- haeren, often not identified as Belgians because they wrote self-organised platforms for marketing their works. The most lished painters such as Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir and pressed the Vienna Secession with his elegant extravagance in French, were of enormous importance for the inter national important group in this context was Les XX, with its Salon for other Impressionists took part often and gladly; Redon, “con- and influenced, among others, Gustav Klimt, who in turn spread of Symbolism.11 Nevertheless, at the end of the cen- contemporary Belgian and international art.