THE RELIGIOUS SOCIETY OF FRIENDS (QUAKERS) IN IRELAND: SECTARIANISM AND IDENTITY By MARIA HELEN KENNEDY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham For the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham February 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract This thesis is a sociological study of Quakers in Ireland that investigates the impact that sectarianism has had on identity construction within the Religious Society of Friends. My research highlights the complex identities of individual Friends in respect of culture, national identities and theology – mirrored by the Society’s corporate identity. Jennifer Todd’s work on sectarianism and oppositional identities in Ireland provides part of the theoretical framework for this thesis. An identity matrix formulated from interview data is used to illustrate how different identities overlap and relate to each other. I argue that the range of ‘hybrid’ or multi-layered identities within Irish Quakerism has resulted in tensions which impact on relationships between Friends and on the Society. The thesis discusses how Friends negotiate these ‘hybrid’ identities. Irish Quakers prioritise ‘relational unity’ and have developed a distinctive approach to complex identity management. I contend that in their external relations ‘Quaker’ represents a meta-identity that is counter- cultural in its non-sectarianism, although this is more problematic within the organisation of Friends. Furthermore, by modelling an alternative, non-sectarian identity, Friends are building capacity for transformation from oppositional to more fluid and inclusive identities in Ireland. i Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my beloved mum, Mary Anne Kennedy, whose affection, humour and Irishness I value dearly, and to the memory of my father, James Joseph Kennedy. ii Acknowledgements I thank Ben Pink Dandelion, my supervisor, for his calm guidance, incisive feedback, accessibility and encouragement over the last six years. I also thank the other academic staff and students at the Centre for Post-Graduate Quaker Studies, Woodbrooke, in particular, Fran, Jo and Penelope for their encouragement and friendship. I enjoyed being a member of such a supportive research community, and participating in research skills training, student days, conferences and summer schools made the student experience very enriching. I am very grateful to Friends in Ireland for their hospitality; for sharing their insights and knowledge of Irish Quakerism, and for being willing to participate in my research study. I thank Diana and John Lampen for giving me the opportunity to talk over my ideas in the early stages of the research and Elizabeth Duke for generously sharing her field notes with me. Thanks to Professor Jennifer Todd for reading chapter five and for her encouraging comments. Susannah Temple acted as my research friend in Bristol and her clarity and insightfulness were very helpful in keeping me focussed on the main aims of the study. I very much appreciate the help of Jude Connor and Sally Juniper for their excellent and comprehensive proofreading of the final draft of the thesis. I am very grateful to the Quaker Higher Education Adult Grants group for their financial support towards my university tuition fees and to the University of Birmingham for funding towards research expenses and the wide range of training available to doctoral researchers. I thank my family and friends, and also Friends in my local Quaker Meeting, for their encouragement, support and interest in my research. Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to Lisa Saffron, my partner, who has supported me at every stage of the PhD journey by reading drafts of my work, by acting as a ‘sounding board’ when I got stuck, and for her open-hearted encouragement and belief in me. iii List of Contents Abstract i Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures Table of Contents Chapter One – Introduction to the thesis……………………………………………….. ... 1 1.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Background ....................................................................................................... 2 1.3. Context of the thesis ......................................................................................... 4 1.3.1. Introduction to Quakerism – fundamental ideas of early Friends ............... 4 1.3.2. Theology and culture – twentieth century divergence ................................ 7 1.4. Quakers in Ireland – history, culture and theology .......................................... 12 1.5. Terminology, language and historical ‘balance’ .............................................. 16 1.6. Literature review ............................................................................................. 21 1.6.1. Quakers in Ireland .................................................................................... 21 1.6.2. Identity studies ......................................................................................... 24 1.6.3. Identity and sectarianism in Ireland .......................................................... 28 1.7. Outline of the thesis ........................................................................................ 33 1.8. Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 35 Chapter Two – Research Methodology………………………………………………… . 37 2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 37 2.2. Aims and nature of the study .......................................................................... 37 2.3. Motivation for doing the research .................................................................... 38 2.4. Introduction to methodology ............................................................................ 39 2.4.1. Qualitative research ................................................................................. 39 2.4.2. Rationale for change in focus ................................................................... 42 2.4.3. Section summary...................................................................................... 43 2.5. Data collection ................................................................................................ 44 2.5.1. Sample group ........................................................................................... 44 2.5.2. Interviews ................................................................................................. 45 2.5.3. Constructing the interview guide .............................................................. 47 2.5.4. Piloting the interviews ............................................................................... 48 2.5.5. Interviewing research respondents ........................................................... 50 2.5.6. Section summary...................................................................................... 52 2.6. Participant observation ................................................................................... 52 2.7. Transcription theory ........................................................................................ 55 2.7.1. Qualitative analysis .................................................................................. 59 2.8. Reflexivity ....................................................................................................... 61 2.8.1. Insider/outsider status in research............................................................ 61 2.8.2. Negotiating my own insider/outsiderness ................................................. 68 2.8.3. Personal impact of the study .................................................................... 69 2.8.4. The application of reflexivity ..................................................................... 71 2.8.5. Section summary...................................................................................... 74 2.9. Ethical issues .................................................................................................. 74 2.9.1. How I sought to be an ethical researcher ................................................. 76 2.9.2. Manipulation ............................................................................................. 79 2.9.3. Confidentiality ........................................................................................... 80 2.10. Chapter summary ......................................................................................... 83 Chapter Three – The Development of Sectarianism in Ireland………………………. 84 3.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 84 3.2. Historical roots of sectarianism ......................................................................