NORWAY "MUST REALLY DROP THEIR ABSURD CLAIMS SUCH AS THAT TO THE OTTO SVERDRUP ISLANDS." BI-POLAR INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMACY: THE SVERDRUP ISLANDS QUESTION, 1902-1930. Thorleif Tobias Thorleifsson BA, Simon Fraser University 2004 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In the Department of History Faculty of Arts O Thorleif Tobias Thorleifsson 2006 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2006 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: Thorleif Tobias Thorleifsson Degree: Master of Arts Title of Thesis: Norway "must really drop their absurd claims such as that to the Otto Sverdrup Islands." Bi-Polar International Diplomacy: The Sverdrup Islands Question, 1902-1930. Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Mark Leier Professor of History Dr. John 0. Stubbs Senior Supervisor Professor of History Dr. Tina Loo Supervisor Associate Professor of History University of British Columbia Lyle Dick External Examiner West Coast Historian Western Canada Service Centre Parks Canada Date Approved: DECLARATION OF PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENCE The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. The author has further granted permission to Simon Fraser University to keep or make a digital copy for use in its circulating collection, and, without changing the content, to translate the thesislproject or extended essays, if technically possible, to any medium or format for the purpose of preservation of the digital work. The author has further agreed that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by either the author or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without the author's written permission. Permission for public performance, or limited permission for private scholarly use, of any multimedia materials forming part of this work, may have been granted by the author. This information may be found on the separately catalogued multimedia material and in the signed Partial Copyright Licence. The original Partial Copyright Licence attesting to these terms, and signed by this author, may be found in the original bound copy of this work, retained in the Simon Fraser University Archive. Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada loXzmberly Dawn Anda huge thanks to allmy Canadzan yrzends whom were negkctedas I wrote thesepages. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe the completion of this thesis to Dr. John 0.Stubbs, who has been a consistent source of guidance and inspiration. As my supervisor at Simon Fraser University, John has offered insight, patience and encouragement, for which I am truly grateful. In the areas where this thesis is original and corrective John's guidance has been essential. I would like to take the opportunity to apologize in retrospect for my inability to avoid sloppy prose and typos. The final copy of this thesis is clearly marked by John's corrections and thorough proofreads. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee, Dr. Tina Loo of the University of British Columbia and Lyle Dick of Parks Canada. In addition, I would also like to thank the following individuals and institutions, for assistance with the research and practical issues attached to the completion of this thesis: Marion Walter, Penny Simpson, Mark Leier, the National Archives in Britain, the Norwegian Parliamentary Archives, the National Archives of Norway and Simon Fraser University in general. TABLE OF CONTENTS .. Approval ............................................................................................................................ 11 ... Abstract .............................................................................................................................111 Dedication ......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................v Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. vi Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 Chapter One: The origins and progress of Canadian sovereignty over the Sverdrup Islands. 1900-1930............................................................................................. 9 Introduction: .....................................................................................................................9 International law and acquisition of polar territories 1900- 1930 ...............................10 From exploration to sovereignty in the Canadian Arctic ........................................... 12 The sector principle .................................................................................................. 16 Canada and the Arctic Archipelago 1920- 1930..................................................... 18 The MacMillan-Byrd expedition and its consequences .............................................22 The Arctic Islands Game Preserve and Canadian autonomy .....................................28 American compliance with the Arctic Islands Game Preserve? ................................ 31 Norway's position in the wake of the MacMillan-Byrd expedition ........................... 33 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 34 Chapter Two: The Sverdrup Islands and the bi-polar context of British and Norwegian expansionism. 1920.1930 .............................................................................36 Introduction ...................................................................................................................-36 Economic considerations ...........................................................................................-38 Nationalism. public opinion and territorial expansion ...............................................40 Norwegian and British expansion in Antarctica .........................................................43 The Norwegian annexation of Bouvet Island .............................................................48 The Sverdrup Islands as pawn in the Antarctic context ........................................51 The analogy of Franz Josef Land ...............................................................................55 The Norwegian annexation of Jan Mayen and its relevance to the Sverdrup Islands issue ...............................................................................................57 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................59 Chapter Three: The Sverdrup Islands affair ...............................................................61 Introduction ....................................................................................................................61 The official Norwegian claim to the Sverdrup Islands ...............................................62 Britain enters the stage ...............................................................................................67 0. D . Skelton at the 21S' meeting of the Interdepartmental Committee .....................70 . Negotiations in Paris ...................................................................................................73 Confrontation in Antarctica and Britain's push for a general bi-polar settlement with Norway ............................................................................. 76 Canadian compliance with Britain's scheme for settlement of outstanding questions in the Arctic ...............................................................................81 Wingfield initiates talks with Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs ......................84 . Initial agreement in principle ......................................................................................86 Resurgence of second Norwegian stipulation ............................................................88 Britain's and Otto Sverdrup's push for a compromise: towards a final agreement ...................................................................................................93 Formal closure: Why Canada did not buy the Sverdrup Islands ................................98 Final agreement .......................................................................................................100 Conclusion ................................................................................................................102 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................103 Appendices ......................................................................................................................108 Appendix 1: Chronology of major events in the bi-polar context. 1902- 1930............ 109 Appendix 2: Political