Displaced Mixed-Blood: An Ethnographic Exploration of Metis Identities in Nova Scotia by Katie K. MacLeod A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario ©2013, Katie K. 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Canada Abstract With recent resurgences of Metis recognition in Canada there have been increasingly more opportunities for self-identifying Metis to gain legal recognition from the Canadian State. Although the Maritimes has not been viewed as a region with a Metis presence in the past, there are various populations present that are searching for this recognition. This study explores the historic mixed-blood that is present among the self-identifying Metis in Nova Scotia. I explore the way these Metis identities are contextualized in Canada though history, law, and Indigenous-settler relations. Particularly, I provide an analysis of Metis identification in Nova Scotia though genealogy, language, colonialism and denial. Lastly, this study shows the struggles the Metis face when positioning themselves within constitutional categories in an effort to be acknowledged as Aboriginal Peoples in Canada. Acknowledgements This project would not have been possible without the support of many people, I would like to thank the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Carleton University, learning from and working with the faculty and staff has been inspiring and has increased my knowledge and in many ways pushed me to see my project from new perspectives, I would like to thank my supervisors; Dr. Donna Patrick for her willingness to offer knowledge, attention and advice; and Dr. Siomonn Pulla for his help navigating the complexities of the Canadian political-legal domain, guidance and encouragement. I am eternally grateful for the support you both provided through the challenges, fieldwork, analysis and writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank my external examiner Dr. Michel Hogue for his time, insight and comments. I would like to thank all those who participated in my project in various capacities. In particular I would like to thank members of the Metis organizations, Kespu’kwitk Metis Council, l’Association des Acadien-Metis Souriquois and Sou’west Nova M6tis Council, without your consultation and collaboration this project would not have been possible. It was a pleasure to hear and tell your stories. I would like to thank my family, for instilling in me a thirst for knowledge and a dedication to hard work; my grandparents for never letting me forget the importance of being Acadian and an endless curiosity in the identity and it’s many complexities; my mother and father for providing me with endless support and guidance and my brother for being a friend and source of laughter. I would like to thank my friends and extended family for providing encouragement, and unwavering support. I would like to thank my fellow graduate students; you provided me with a diverse learning environment, valuable insight and lasting friendships. Table of Contents Abstract........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables.................................................................................................................................vi List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. vii Chapter 1: Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1 Methodology................................................................................................................................. 3 Interviews....................................................................................................................................... 5 Participant Observation................................................................................................................. 5 A Collaborative Approach............................................................................................................ 6 Methodological Considerations and Limitations........................................................................ 7 Chapter Summaries.....................................................................................................................8 Chapter 2: Who are the Metis in Nova Scotia? Building an Ethnohistorical Context 11 Mltis Identities in Canada........................................................................................................ 11 The Mi’kmaq in Nova Scotia....................................................................................................15 French Settlement and the Acadians in Nova Scotia............................................................. 18 Cape Sable Island......................................................................................................................21 The Mltis in Nova Scotia..........................................................................................................22 The Legal Context for Mltis in Nova Scotia.......................................................................... 27 The Jay Treaty ..............................................................................................................................28 R. v. Powley.................................................................................................................................30 Daniels v. R .................................................................................................................................. 33 Manitoba Mdtis Federation v. Canada .......................................................................................34 Fitting Into the Legal Context: Challenges and Opportunities............................................34 Conclusions................................................................................................................................. 40 Chapter 3: An Ethnographic Study of M6tis...................................................................... 42 Identities in Nova Scotia............................................................................................................42 “Plane un aige”............................................................................................................ 42 Genealogy and Membership.....................................................................................................43 Relationship to Land, Animals and Waters............................................................................58 Language, Relations and Respect.............................................................................................75 Colonialism and Denial.............................................................................................................89 Chapter 4: Categorization of Metis Identities in Nova Scotia....................................... 98 “Mltisness” in Nova Scotia.......................................................................................................99 Community or Collective?...................................................................................................... 103 Conclusions..............................................................................................................................