Tweeting Towards Utopia: Technological Utopianism and Academic Discourse on Political Movements in the Middle East and North Africa By Ghadah Alrasheed A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In Communication Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario ©2017, Ghadah Alrasheed ii Abstract This dissertation offers a critical reading of Western academic discussions of the role of new communication technology in the Arab and Iranian movements that started in 2009. It demonstrates that while academic efforts to interpret the role of new technology in the movements display discursive variety, technological utopianism is operative in many of these efforts, generating particular images of the movements in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Critics, James Carey (1989) and Vincent Mosco (2005), understand technological utopianism as an extension of religious ideology (Carey) or ancient mythology (Mosco), concealing unequal economic relations (Mosco, 2005; Carey, 1989). This conceptualization of technological utopianism results in a lack of attention to technological utopianism’s internal complexity and heterogeneity. This study attempts to acknowledge the discursive reality of technological utopianism by heeding its discursive, institutional, and historical nuances, while also tracing its effect on developing perceptions of the contemporary movements in MENA. Acknowledging the multi-stranded nature of Western discourse of technology and its ramifications, this study employs a mixed-perspective approach. The first part of the dissertation (Chapters 2 and 3) is an historical and philosophical investigation that looks at Western discourse of technology, with special attention given to technological utopianism. Through this exploration, I put forward various models that have informed prevailing visions of technology. The second part (Chapters 5 and 6) relies on these models to critically and empirically assess their distribution in academic texts iii investigating the MENA movements. It detects, through this assessment, ways technological utopianism affords particular images of MENA’s politics and societies. In order to carry out these two projects, the multi-stranded history and the empirical examination of academic discourse, this dissertation puts two discourse traditions in dialogue (Chapter 4): Foucault’s sense of power and history (1971, 1977a, 1977b, 1988) and Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis (2013). The empirical evidence for this study is provided via two different means of data sampling: systematic and case- based. This work carries out a systematic study of journal publications representing academic research discourse on technology in the MENA movements. It offers further evidence in three case studies chosen from three academic-related domains: public, pedagogic, and policy-setting. Informed by these analyses, this dissertation offers a critical, reflexive, and rigorous analysis of Western academic discussions of the MENA movements. iv Acknowledgements As “discourse” is characterized by ubiquity and plurality, writing this dissertation about discourse, needless to say, has been a collective process, wherein I have acted as an element rather than the originator. I am grateful, first, to my supervisor, Professor Chris Russill, who has immensely shaped my thinking and instilled in me the love to reevaluate, negotiate, and revise grand ideas and master narratives. His immense knowledge and perspicacious mind have inspired me – even before this project began – since my first PhD seminar with him. The erudite insight and feedback he has provided throughout the writing of this dissertation has considerably shaped its direction and outcome. Thank you, Dr. Russill, for a great and fulfilling mentorship. I give Professors Miranda Brady and Merlyna Lim, the other two members of my doctoral committee, unreserved thanks for their invaluable suggestions and lively discussions. Dr. Lim’s rigorous work on political movements and Dr. Brady’s admirable commitment to indigenous research have always exemplified, to me, dedication and diligence in research. A specific note of gratitude goes, too, to Professor Joshua Greenberg, whose insightful comments and criticisms have played a role in improving and sharpening my arguments. I also wish to acknowledge, for their feedback and recommendations, my external examiners Dr. Ian Roderick, from Wilfrid Laurier University, and Dr. Neil Gerlach, from Carleton University. I extend my thanks to Professors Michèle Martin, Sheryl Hamilton, Ira Wagman, Karim Karim, Graham Smart, and Dwayne Winseck for sharing their knowledge at different moments in my PhD journey and energizing me with their comments and v conversations. I also wish to acknowledge the support from the administrative staff at the School of Journalism and Communication, particularly Coleen Kornelsen and Carole Craswell. Thanks go, too, to the School’s graduate students, whose diverse research passions and different academic interests have always stimulated a passion in me to expand my knowledge about communication and its various trajectories and domains. I owe a special debt of thanks to the Saudi Cultural Bureau of Canada for their financial aid, which has allowed me to immerse myself in this work and dedicate my time to develop it. I also owe appreciation to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of Carleton University for a Carleton Graduate Scholarship. And my eternal gratitude and boundless love goes to my husband and my best friend, Dr. Fahad Alkherayf, who has been by my side throughout this PhD. I would not have the courage to finish this journey without his love, wisdom, support, and humor. And to my children, who have continually reminded me what life should be about – splashing in water, building Lego, and collecting miniature figures. And, finally, my abundant love goes to my parents and family in Saudi Arabia for having showered me with love and warmth. To them, I credit, in the first place, my interest in pursuing higher education. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... .iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES........................................................................................ viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................................... 1 KEY TERMS..............................................................................................................................................14 CHAPTER OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................................20 CHAPTER 2: MAPPING WESTERN DISCOURSE OF TECHNOLOGY .........................................25 FURTHER VOCABULARY ..........................................................................................................................25 THE DOMAIN OF UTOPIA ...........................................................................................................................37 RELIGION AND RATIONALITY ....................................................................................................................46 CAPITALISM AND MYTH/IDEOLOGY ..........................................................................................................52 MILITARISM .............................................................................................................................................55 THE DOCTRINE OF NEUTRALITY ...............................................................................................................59 TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICS ....................................................................................................................63 NETWORK TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN UTOPIA AND POWER ...........................................................................65 CONCLUSION ...........................................................................................................................................69 CHAPTER 3: WESTERN MODERN INTELLECTUALITY ON POLITICS AND TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................................................71 REVISITING MARX, ARENDT AND HABERMAS ..........................................................................................73 MODERN ACADEMIC EXPERTISE AND TECHNOLOGY ..................................................................................85 MAPPING MODELS ....................................................................................................................................95 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ...........................................................................................................99 WHY ACADEMIC DISCOURSE? .................................................................................................................101 WHICH APPROACH(ES)? .........................................................................................................................105