TYPOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL CONSTRAINTS ON LANGUAGE CONTACT AMERINDIAN LANGUAGES IN CONTACT WITH SPANISH VOLUME I Published by LOT phone: +31 30 253 6006 Janskerkhof 13 fax: +31 30 253 6406 3512 BL Utrecht e-mail: [email protected] The Netherlands http://www.lotschool.nl Cover illustrations: The Building of the Babel Tower by Pieter Bruegel (1563); Guaraní Indians by Ulrico Schmidl (1599, plates 6 and 11); Columbus’s Second Voyage, Anonymous (1584). ISBN 978-90-78328-62-9 NUR 616 Copyright © 2008: Jorge Gómez Rendón. All rights reserved. Typological and social constraints on language contact Amerindian languages in contact with Spanish VOLUME I ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel der Universiteit op donderdag 2 oktober 2008, te 12.00 uur door Jorge Arsenio Gómez Rendón Quito, Ecuador Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof. Dr. P.C. Hengeveld Copromotor: Dr. D. Bakker Overige leden: Prof. Dr. P. Muysken Prof. Dr. T. H. Stolz Prof. Dr. W. Dietrich Prof. Dr. M. A. Woidich Dr. U. Ansaldo Dr. E. Hekking Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen Universiteit van Amsterdam Para mis padres, Arsenio y Edith vii CONTENTS Volume I INTRODUCTION 1 PART I. THE THEORY 5 1 Taking a stand 7 1.1 On language and theories 8 1.2 The structure of this book 8 2 Views on language contact 11 2.1 What is language contact? 12 2.2 Communities and speakers in contact 14 2.3 Multilingualism and language contact 17 2.3.1 Diglossia and language contact 18 2.4 Social and historical aspects of language contact and change 19 2.5 Contact situations and outcomes 22 2.5.1 Language shift: second language acquisition and language loss 22 2.5.2 Language maintenance and mixing: borrowing and codeswitching 25 2.6 An explanatory model of contact-induced language change through borrowing 31 2.6.1 Some terminological distinctions 31 2.6.2 A functional explanation of contact-induced language change 32 2.7 Summary 44 3 Theories on linguistic borrowing 45 3.1. The theory of Functional Grammar 46 3.1.1. A functional view of language 46 3.1.2. A functional view of language contact 49 3.1.3. Standards of adequacy and language contact 50 3.1.4. Motivations of contact-induced language change 53 3.2. The Theory of Parts of Speech 55 3.3. Implications of the Parts-of-Speech Theory to Lexical Borrowing 58 3.4. Implicational Hierarchies and Scales of Borrowability 59 3.5. Scales of Borrowability: a critical overview 64 3.5.1. Lexical borrowability 65 3.5.2. Grammatical borrowability 71 3.5.3. Syntactic borrowability: calquing of word order patterns 74 3.6. Structural compatibility as a constraint on borrowing 77 viii 3.6.1. Morphological typology and structural compatibility 78 3.6.2. Parts-of-speech typology and structural compatibility 80 3.7. Summary 82 4. The Research Program 83 4.1 A critical overview of studies on linguistic borrowing 83 4.1.1 Studies on linguistic borrowing in Latin America 85 4.2 A program of research on linguistic borrowing 86 4.3 Research questions and general hypotheses 93 4.3.1 Borrowing hypotheses from the Principle of Functional Explanation 94 4.3.2 Borrowing hypotheses from the Principle of System Compatibility 95 4.3.3 Borrowing hypotheses from the Scales of Borrowability 96 4.3.4 Borrowing hypotheses from the Parts-of-Speech Theory 97 4.3.5 Borrowing hypotheses from Language Typology 101 4.4 The Methodology 103 4.4.1 Data collection 103 4.4.2 Data processing 106 4.4.3 Problematic issues 113 4.5 Summary 117 PART II. THE LANGUAGES 119 5. Spanish 121 5.1. Spanish in the Americas: e pluribus unum 121 5.1.1. Hispanicization and diglossia 123 5.1.2. Colonial expansion, dialectal leveling and Andalusian influence 124 5.1.3. Dialectal areas of Spanish in the Americas 129 5.1.4. Spanish in contact with Amerindian languages 130 5.2. Spanish in Ecuador 134 5.2.1. Dialects of Spanish in Ecuador 137 5.3. Spanish in Paraguay 142 5.3.1. Linguistic characterization of Spanish in Paraguay 144 5.4. Spanish in Mexico 152 5.4.1. Dialects of Spanish in Mexico 156 5.4.2. Spanish in Querétaro 158 5.5. Spanish: a typological characterization 161 6. Ecuadorian Quechua (Quichua) 169 6.1. The history of Quichua in Ecuador 175 6.2. The dialects of Quichua in Ecuador 179 6.3. Quichua: a typological characterization 184 ix 6.4. Borrowing hypotheses for Quichua 191 7. Paraguayan Guaraní 195 7.1. The history of Paraguayan Guaraní 200 7.2. Language variation and language mixing in Paraguay 207 7.3. Paraguayan Guaraní: a typological characterization 216 7.4. Borrowing hypotheses for Paraguayan Guaraní 225 8. Otomí 227 8.1. The history of Otomí 235 8.2. The dialects of Otomí 240 8.3. Otomí: a typological characterization 245 8.4. Borrowing hypotheses for Otomí 264 9. Predictions in comparative perspective 267 9.1. Predictions from the Principle of Functional Explanation 267 9.2. Predictions from the Principle of System Compatibility 267 9.3. Predictions from the Scales of Borrowability 268 9.4. Predictions from the Theory of Parts of Speech 268 Volume II PART III. THE ANALYSIS 269 10. Comparative analysis: lexical borrowing 271 10.1. Morpho-phonological adaptation of lexical borrowings 271 10.1.1. Quichua 272 10.1.2. Paraguayan Guaraní 277 10.1.3. Otomí 284 10.2. Linguistic borrowing in the corpora 290 10.2.1. Lexical borrowing in the corpora 293 10.3. The distribution of lexical borrowing in the corpora: parts of speech 294 10.3.1. Verbs 297 10.3.2. Nouns 298 10.3.3. Adjectives 301 10.3.4. Manner adverbs 303 10.3.5. Complex borrowings 305 10.4. The use of lexical borrowings in the corpora 306 10.4.1. The use of loan verbs 306 10.4.2. The use of loan nouns 309 10.4.3. The use of loan adjectives 317 10.4.4. The use of loan manner adverbs 331 10.4.5. The use of complex borrowings 334 x 10.5. Dialectal variation in the distribution and use of lexical borrowings 336 10.6. Bilingual performance in the distribution and use of lexical borrowings 341 10.7. Summary 347 11. Comparative analysis: grammatical borrowing 351 11.1. Morpho-phonological adaptation of grammatical borrowings 351 11.1.1. Morpho-phonological adaptation of prepositions and conjuncts in Quichua 352 11.1.2. Morpho-phonological adaptation of conjuncts and determiners in Guaraní 353 11.1.3. Morpho-phonological adaptation of prepositions and conjuncts in Otomí 354 11.2. The amount of grammatical borrowings in the corpora 356 11.3. Distribution and use of grammatical borrowings in the corpora 360 11.3.1. Articles 360 11.3.2. Conjuncts 364 11.3.3. Prepositions 380 11.3.4. Discourse markers 392 11.3.5. Other parts of speech 400 11.4. Dialectal variation in the distribution of grammatical borrowings 412 11.5. Bilingual performance in the distribution of grammatical borrowings 415 11.6. Summary 417 12. Conclusions 421 12.1. Spanish borrowing in cross-linguistic perspective: similarities and differences 421 12.2. Social causes and linguistic factors in the modeling of borrowing behavior 425 12.3. Language typology and contact-induced change 426 12.4. Towards a research program on linguistic borrowing 429 13. Bibliography 431 14. Appendices 453 14.1. Annotated samples 453 14.2. Speakers 497 14.3. Chi-square tables 501 Summary in English 511 Summary in Spanish (Resumen) 513 Summary in Dutch (Sammenvating) 515 xi TABLES 3.1 Lexemes and syntactic slots in English 55 3.2 Parts-of-speech systems 56 3.3 The parts-of-speech hierarchy 57 3.4 Borrowing continuum based on Whitney 1881 72 3.5 Borrowing continuum based on Muysken 1981 73 3.6 Morphological Typology and Borrowability of form-meaning units 80 4.1 Levels of integration and spelling differences 107 4.2 Structure of data file 108 4.3 Table of frequencies for one informant (fragment) 109 4.4 Total for parts of speech in Imbabura Quichua (fragment) 112 5.1 Areas of Amerindian substratum in Spanish 133 5.2 Dialects of Spanish in Ecuador: distinctive linguistic features 140 5.3 Linguistic features of Colloquial Paraguayan Spanish 145 5.4 Phonetic and morphological features of Mexican Spanish dialects 157 5.5 Phonetic features of Spanish in Querétaro 159 6.1 Quichua vitality according to percentage of native speakers 171 6.2 Levels of monolingualism and bilingualism 172 6.3 Quichua monolingualism and illiteracy by age groups 173 6.4 Levels of bilingualism by gender 173 6.5 Uses of Quichua by socio-communicative per settings and province 175 7.1 Speakers above 5 years by area, sex and language (2002) 196 8.1 Total population and number of speakers per indigenous language 229 8.2 Total population and number of speakers in the Otopamean branch 229 8.3 Otomí Population in indigenous households by municipality in 2005 231 8.4 Classification of Otomí dialects per locality, state and linguistic features 243 10.1 Totals of borrowings and native tokens in the corpora 290 10.2 Totals of codeswitching per number of switches and tokens 291 10.3 Minimum and maximum percentages of borrowings for speakers 292 10.4 Borrowing percentages for dialects of each recipient language 292 10.5 Percentages of lexical and grammatical borrowing 293 10.6 Lexical and grammatical borrowing in terms of types and tokens 294 10.7a Percentages of borrowings per lexical class 294 10.7b Lexical borrowings vs.