Electric and Hybrid Cars SECOND EDITION This page intentionally left blank Electric and Hybrid Cars A History Second Edition CURTIS D. ANDERSON and JUDY ANDERSON McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Anderson, Curtis D. (Curtis Darrel), 1947– Electric and hybrid cars : a history / Curtis D. Anderson and Judy Anderson.—2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-3301-8 softcover : 50# alkaline paper 1. Electric automobiles. 2. Hybrid electric cars. I. Anderson, Judy, 1946– II. Title. TL220.A53 2010 629.22'93—dc22 2010004216 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2010 Curtis D. Anderson. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. On the cover: (clockwise from top left) Cutaway of hybrid vehicle (©20¡0 Scott Maxwell/LuMaxArt); ¡892 William Morrison Electric Wagon; 20¡0 Honda Insight; diagram of controller circuits of a recharging motor, ¡900 Manufactured in the United States of America McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 611, Je›erson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com To my family, in gratitude for making car trips such a happy time. (J.A.A.) This page intentionally left blank TABLE OF CONTENTS Acronyms and Initialisms ix Preface 1 Introduction: The Birth of the Automobile Industry 3 1. The Evolution of the Electric Vehicle 21 2. Politics 60 3. Environment 106 4. Technology 138 5. Marketing 166 6. Conclusion 222 Appendix: Hybrids Defined 233 Chapter Notes 235 Selected Bibliography 245 Index 249 vii This page intentionally left blank ACRONYMS AND INITIALISMS ACEEE—American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy AFV—Alternative Fuel Vehicle ALABC—Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium AMC—American Motors Corporation APS—Arizona Public Service AT-PZEV—Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicles BEV—Battery Electric Vehicles CaFCP—California Fuel Cell Partnership CAFE—Corporate Average Fuel Economy CARB—California Air Resources Board CAUCA—Californians Against Utility Company Abuse CFA—Central Facilities Area CMA—California Manufacturers Association CMAQ—Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Program CNG—Compressed Natural Gas DOE—Department of Energy EPA—Environmental Protection Agency EPAct—Energy Policy Act (1992) ERDA—Energy Research and Development Agency ETA—Electric Transportation Applications EV—Electric Vehicle FCEV—Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles FCV—Fuel Cell Vehicle FOP—Field Operations Program FTA—Federal Transit Act GM—General Motors HEV—Hybrid Electric Vehicle ICE—Internal Combustion Engine INEEL—Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory ISTEA—Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act LAW—League of American Wheelmen LEV—Low Emission Vehicle LEVP—Low Emission Vehicle Program LiION—Lithium Ion (battery) LNG—Liquefied Natural Gas ix x Acronyms and Initialisms LPB—Lithium Polymer Battery NELA—National Electric Lighting Association NEV—Neighborhood Electric Vehicle NiMH—Nickel Metal Hydride (battery) NREL—National Renewable Energy Laboratory OTEC—Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion OWC—Oscillating Water Column PEM—Proton Exchange Membrane PEPCO—Potomac Electric Power Company PHEV—Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle PNGV—Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles PZEV—Partial Zero Emission Vehicle QVT—Qualified Vehicle Tester RFG—Reformulated Gasoline SCAT—Southern Coalition for Advanced Transportation SCE—Southern California Edison SULEV—Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle TEA-21—Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998) ULEV—Ultra Low Emission Vehicle USABC—United States Advanced Battery Consortium USCAR—United States Council for Automotive Research ULSD—Ultra Low-Sulfur Diesel USPS—United States Postal Service V2G—Vehicle to Grid Technology VRDC—Vehicle Recycling Development Center ZEV—Zero Emission Vehicle PREFACE When the first edition of this book came out, the Prius hybrid was king. Electrics had a small following and were being used in test markets. A few cities were experimenting with recharging stations on a very lim- ited scale. Since then, the worldwide movement away from fossil fuels to more sustainable solutions for our autos and energy needs has spurred both government and private investment for research and development of new technologies, alternate fuels, more cost-effective, durable batter- ies, and expanded infrastructures to support the innovations. New auto manufacturers in India and China have joined the competition; a wide variety of makes and models of electrics and hybrids are appearing in con- cept cars and production models. This edition brings the reader into the excitement that surrounds this next phase of automotive development and stewardship of our planet. Beginning with a chronicle of more than a century of the politics, technologies, environmental controversies, and marketing strategies that have shaped the auto industry, the book takes the reader from the electric “women’s car” and hybrid cars of the late 19th century to today’s “green” microbial fuel cells, hydrogen refueling and electric recharging infrastructures, and high-performance hybrids and electrics. It contains illustrations of batteries, fuel cells and chassis for the earlier models and photographs of both early and newer electric and hybrid vehicles, with short descriptions of each. A selected annotated bib- liography, list of acronyms and index are included for quick reference. This work does not include mass transit vehicles, neighborhood elec- tric vehicles (NEVs), solar-powered vehicles or detailed explanations of a car’s electrical systems. Nor does it explain the technical workings of the various fuel cells beyond the limits of a general reader’s understanding. It is not meant to be a comprehensive history of electric vehicles. We con- centrate on their history in the United States, with some references to United Kingdom, Asian, Scandinavian and western European vehicle development. Readers interested in blueprints of the electrical systems in electric cars might find works of Ernest Henry Wakefield1 helpful. This is an overview for the inquisitive, a snapshot of the industry for the entrepreneur and a starting point for student researchers. 1 This page intentionally left blank INTRODUCTION: THE BIRTH OF THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Driving with Parents Children today have an entirely different experience driving with their parents than children of 100 or even 50 years ago. In the early years, everyone was dressed in the proper attire and motoring was a wonderful excursion, the adventure possibly including a picnic basket for a stop along the way. Sunday drives were still common in the 1950s: driving along listening to a baseball game on the car radio, or everyone singing and playing travel games, or just watching the scenery fly by. Today, look at the inhabitants of the SUV next to you in traffic. The children are strapped in appropriately, according to state and federal laws, and are either looking down while playing a video game or looking up at the video monitor as mom or dad drives them to their soccer practice or music lesson. Cars have become a mainstay, a necessity. Maybe it is time to recapture that magic and adventure that only an auto ride can give. As Nick Emmanouilides says in an AutoWeek column, “Take your kids for a ride this weekend, and leave the electronics at home. Take them to a greasy spoon. Let them ask questions. Answer them.”1 Cars as Identity Cars provide common ground. They have the ability to cross social, ideological, reli- gious and economic barriers and give people a way to relate to one another through a com- mon interest or conviction. The encounter may be as simple as a parent and child working on a car engine or installing a new piece of technology. An environmental issue may find a staunch conservative Christian joining forces beside a radical liberal idealist through their shared interest in taking care of our planet, being good stewards of our world, using alter- nate fuels and alternative energy sources to power our cars. At one point in the authors’ lives, we owned a Morris Minor Traveler, a small 4-cylinder “woody” station wagon, vin- tage 1960s, from England. Top speed was about 50 miles per hour and every trip was an adventure. We would use it for trips to the ballpark or short runs for shopping, and when- ever we walked through the parking lot to get in our car to return home, we would see a small circle of men, and occasionally a woman or two, standing around it having wonderful con- versations about memories from being stationed in England in World War II. We met a new neighbor one sunny afternoon when we had parked the Traveler in the driveway. He 3 4 Introduction came over and began telling us of his experiences with his Morris Minor and his memo- ries of taking out the engine and fixing it on the kitchen table. Cars hold magic for bring- ing people together. The computer may soon lead in this category, but for the last one hundred years, the most ubiquitous item in America has been the automobile. It has captured our imagina- tion. As computers invade our environment, they have borrowed terminology from the automobile, like information superhighway, infobahn and i-way. Cars provide a security, freedom and comfort some do not find in mass transit or other public transportation. They are statements about