AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF MARVIN DONALD FROST for the DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Name) (Degree) in GEOGRAPHY presented on April 18, 1974 (Major) (Date) Title: A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MAN; LAND, AND WILDLIFE IN BELIZE BRITISH HONDURAS Abstract approved: Redacted for privacy ) J.Granv1/241e Jensen This thesis research consists of an investigation of the human influences on wildlife in Belize.The study was accomplished by the collection and analysis of data with respect to land use, habitat characterisitcs, and wildlife status in Belize.Requirements and status of many species are tabulated in order to give a base upon which to evaluate the wildlife situation as it exists in Belize. Human use of wildlife is discussed.Species accounts and distribution maps are included.Studies were made of the present-day land use patterns and trends in order to evaluate needs in habitat management. It is suggested that since the Mayan period the wildlife of Belize was not influenced greatly by man until the present century, and then largely during the past one to three decades for most species.For a number of species this influence has been expressed in a decrease in numbers especially for curassows, pacas, jaguars, white-lipped peccaries, and crocodiles.Other species have increased or are expected to increase in numbers and to extend their range; a prime example is the cattle egret.A number of animals, including the white- tailed deer, should have increased in numbers with habitat change through land clearing but have not, probably due to over-hunting or possibly other factors. The study shows that certain wildlife species have changed in status and location, as a result of habitat modification. More game species were reported to be present in parts of the southern and western regions of the country, as expected, since these areas are more forested and less settled.The least amount of game was reported present in highly settled areas and locations where there has been considerable habitat modification.Thus, the greatest pressures on wildlife resources were noted in areas where intensified land use resulted in habitat destruction and increased hunting due to an influx of people into the area.In addition natural factors such as diseases and hurricanes are noted to have affected the status of certain wildlife species. At the present Belize is fortunate in that large scale agricultural development is only beginning and hence it is not too late to implement a sound wildlife management program.However, the need is imme- diate in view of the fact that large areas of land will presumably be developed in the near future, and this coupled with the projected population increase, will result in considerable habitat modification and influences on wildlife resources.It is suggested that the wildlife survived during the Mayan period of large population because they had forest refuges in which to retreat.If forest strips along streams and the present and planned "reserves" of forest in Belize remain as areas of protected habitat, and land management in which forest patches and strips alternating with clearings is practiced, the wildlife will have interconnected "islands" of appropriate habitat which if coupled with adequate wildlife management procedures should insure the survival of the faunal heritage of Belize. 1974 MARVIN DONALD FROST ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A Biogeographical Analysis of Some Relationships between Man, Land, and Wildlife in Belize (British Honduras) by Marvin D. Frost A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 1974 APPROVED: Redacted for privacy Profess Cr of Geography in charge of major Redacted for privacy Chairman of Depart lent of Geography yy Redacted for privacy Dean of Graduate School Date thesis is presented April 18, 1974 Typed by Mary Jo Stratton forMarvin D. Frost ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerous individuals and organizations were of assistance throughout the course of my research in Middle America,The Organization for Tropical Studies provided transportation and support for the summer of 1972.Mr. G. Heggs and the Belize Estate and Produce Company provided transportation and assistance in southern Orange Walk District.The L. Lish family was of considerable assistance while in the Cayo District. The Forestry Department (Belmopan) provided liaison and significant information, especially acknowledgement is due to Mr. H. Flowers (Chief Forest Officer) and Mr, L. Sosa (Conservation Officer). Mrs. L. Waight of the Belize Audubon Society provided useful informa- tion,and special thanks is due to the scores of local residents who so patiently and with much interest discussed the biota and land use of their area. Several members of the Oregon State University faculty gave generously of their time during the research and writing, providing invaluable suggestions, especially Professors J. G. Jensen (Major Professor, Geography), R. M. Storm (Zoology), R. M. Highsmith and R. E. Frenkel (Geography), and W. W. Chilcote (Botany). TABLE OF CONTENTS Page L INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of Problem and. Purpose 1 Location Maps 3 Field Research 3 Previous Background 8 Reconnaissance 8 Concentrated Field Study 9 Field Research Techniques 10 Oral History 11 Documents Research 11 Review of Relevant Literature 12 Plan of Thesis 15 ILHABITAT AND WILDLIFE: NATURAL FACTORS AND HUMAN INFLUENCES 17 Characteristics of the Natural Environment 17 Physiography 18 Climate 19 Zoogeographic Setting 24 Vegetation 25 Habitat Quality and Wildlife Distribution 35 Distribution and Quality 36 Habitat Factors 42 Habitat Analysis 47 Methods 48 Site Locations 52 Microclimate Observations 52 Site Descriptions 56 Soil Analysis and Site Studies Discussion 68 Analysis and Discussion of Human Influences on the Landscape and Wildlife of Belize, Past and Present 73 Early Settlement Period 74 Period of European Contact and Forest Resource Exploitation 89 Contemporary Period 94 Human Influences on Habitat by District 113 Some Changes in the Big Fall Area, Toledo District: An Example 131 Page THE WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF BELIZE: NATURAL CONDITIONS, STATUS AND CHANGE 140 Ethnozoology in Belize 142 General Use of Wildlife 143 Game Meat 146 Wildlife Regulations 150 Wildlife Accounts 153 Reptiles 154 Birds 171 Mammals 193 Analysis and Discussion 263 Wildlife Status and Changes 264 Wildlife of Ethnozoological Interest 265 Wildlife Distribution 265 Selected Information Relating to Wildlife Management in Belize 296 IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 305 Human Population Increases and, Wildlife Resources 306 Wildlife, Habitat, and Management 307 Land Use and Habitat Management: Discussion and Recommendations 307 Wildlife Program: Recommendations 310 Research Needs 320 Summation 322 BIBLIOGRAPHY 324 APPENDIX Plate I 342 Plate II 344 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Mean Monthly Precipitation Data for Six Stations, 1963-1971. 20 2 Vegetation Types by Percent Area, 26 3 Microclimate: Comparison of Sites #1, #2, and #3. 54 4 Microclimate: Comparison of Sites #4, #5, and #6. 55 5 Soil Analysis Data. 69 6 Time Sequence of Mayan Occupance along a Portion of the Belize River. 76 7 Animal Remains from the Barton Ramie Site. 78 8 Forest Land Categories by District. 102 9 Forest Land by Vegetation Category. 104 10 Agricultural Land Use. 105 11 Animals Reported as Having Increased. 266 12 Animals Reported as Having Decreased. 267 13 Status of Important Game Meat Species Utilized by the Local Population. 269 14 Animals Used for Meat. 272 15 Animals Hunted for Skins. 275 16 Animals Used as Pets or Kept in Captivity. 276 17 Animals that are Pests. 277 18 Animals of Mainly Esthetic Interest. 277 Table Page 19 Wildlife and Habitat Observations Reported near Columbia Village: An Example. 279 20 Animals Needing Forest or Relatively Undisturbed Areas. 280 21 Animals of Patchy or Disturbed Forests. 281 22 Animals of Open, Cultivated, and Semi-cleared Areas. 281 23 Compiled Wildlife Data: Reptiles. 299 24 Compiled Wildlife Data:Birds. 300 25 Compiled Wildlife Data: Mammals L 301 26 Compiled Wildlife Data: Mammals II. 302 27 Compiled Wildlife Data: Mammals III. 303 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Belize Map 1. 5 2 Belize Map 2. 7 3 Generalized Rainfall and Elevation Maps. 21 4 Generalized Distribution of Natural Vegetation. 28 5 Locations of Habitat Study Sites. 53 6 Distribution of Ancient Mayan Sites. 80 7 Land Concessions of 1783 and 1786. 91 8 Comparison of Export Value for Forest Products, Food and Agricultural Products, and Total Merchandise Trade. 96 9 Distribution of British Honduras Farming Population in 1954. 97 10 Distribution of Ancient Mayan Sites. 97 11 Census Population 1816-1970. 100 12 Population Density. 100 13 Forest Reserves. 103 14 Land Designations. 107 15 Proposed Reserves. 109 16 Settlement and Land Use Pattern before and after Road Construction in the Big Fall Area of Toledo District. 133 17 Trend in Skin Exports: Crocodile Hides and Others. 167 Figure Page 18 Field Research Route1972-1973. 282 19 Distribution Maps: Reptiles. 283 20 Distribution Maps: Birds. 284 21 Distribution Maps: Mammals. 286 22 A Diagrammatic Model of a Possible Interactions System in Wildlife Management for Belize. 319 A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MAN, LAND, AND WILDLIFE IN BELIZE (BRITISH HONDURAS) L INTRODUCTION This study is an outgrowth of my long-term interest in Middle America and especially man's influence on its natural systems.It was conjectured that habitat modification through