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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zaob Road Ann Aibor, Michigan 48106 74-22,020 KENNARD, June Arianna, 1938- WOMAN, SPORT AND SOCIETY IN VICTORIAN ENGLAND. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Ed.D., 1974 Education, physical University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan © 1974 JUNE ARIANNA KENNARD ALL RIGHTS RESERVED WOMAN, SPORT AND SOCIETY IN VICTORIAN ENGLAND by June A. Kennard A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education Greensboro 1974 Approved by APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of the Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Dissertation Adviser Oral Examination l s~~\ ^' Committee Members A\ uu„ Vl , \ aOl Jb /f7V (Date of Examination ii KENNARD, JUNE ARIANNA. Woman, Sport and Society in Victorian England. (1974) Directed by: Dr. Celeste Ulrich. Pp. 197 The stereotype of the Victorian woman does not suggest that she was very active in sport. On the contrary, sources, which included autobiographical works, periodicals, photographs and reports of public meetings, revealed that Victorian women were involved in such activities as rifle shooting, long-distance swimming and scores of golf tournaments. The central theme of the study concerned how the Victorian woman, particularly the middle-class woman, behaved in a sport situation, how this affected her role as woman, and conversely, how her role as woman affected her sports participation. Sport is juxtaposed with the feminine ideal: sport came into conflict with the feminine ideal and the reasons for this disparity are examined. The characteristics embodied in the feminine ideal polarized sex roles and served to obviate competition with men. In a social system which comprised cooperative unequals, participation in sport by women was disturbing. Sport was physical and masculine, and therefore outside woman's sphere which was emotional and spiritual. Sport entailed a degree of competition surpassing that sanctioned for women in the marriage market. Victorian girlhood, family relationships and childhood games in the socialization process were-examined. After 1870, girls increasingly received a school education, and the emphasis in training shifted away from the "accomplishments" toward theoretical study. Physical education in the schools promoted competitive games, and extended the age up to which it could be considered appropriate for young women to participate in sports. With the expansion in girls' and women's sport, there arose the problem of a suitable costume which could simultaneously accommodate free movement and preserve the feminine ideal. For the most part, women wore the ordinary fashions of the day for sports activities, but the incipient design of a special outfit for sport was apparent. In the first half of the nineteenth century, middle-class women walked for recreation and rode horseback if affluent. The most signi­ ficant feature of sport in the latter half of the century was its growth and organization. More and more women took part in an increasing variety of sport activities. The formal organization of sport was realized, and most important, competition was established. A close inspection of the protagonists of women's sport reveals that the medical profession was one of the first groups to advocate physical exercise for women. They were later joined by educators, feminists and socially prominent women. The most vociferous antagonists of women's sport were the anti-feminists. They pointed to the contradiction between womanhood and sport, and through their arguments, the issue raised by women's sport can be clearly viewed. In spite of opposition, Victorian women organized sport, de­ veloped comprehensive physical education programs, encouraged physical emancipation through sport, and instituted competition. By the end of the century, women were competitors at Wimbledon, they were entered in scores of golf tournaments, and school girls were playing team games. Woman's sport became an instrument of social change by modify­ ing and defining woman's larger role in society. At the same time, woman's sport was subject to the conditions of the feminine ideal. Sport militated against the feminine ideal and gave rise to a conflict between womanhood and sport. The conflict fostered ambivalence, and its resolution involved compromise which dictated that women participate in sport under handicaps which curtailed skillful play. Victorian women clung to their symbol of womanhood, their skirts, and played sports with ladylike motions. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The researcher would like to express appreciation to those people who contributed to the completion of this study. Gratitude is extended to Dr. Celeste Ulrich, Chairwoman of the Graduate Committee, for her insights, time and guidance in the investigation and writing of this study. Appreciation is extended to Dr. Ann Pottinger Saab, mem­ ber of the Committee, for the benefit of her knowledge and time. Helpful suggestions from Dr. Pauline Loeffler, Dr. Rosemary McGee and Dr. Elizabeth Umstead, members of the Committee, are appreciated. Special thanks go to Dr. Ann Dixon for her advice and assistance. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. VICTORIAN CONCEPTS OF WOMANHOOD .... 14 Part I. Empress of Heart and Home 14 Part II. Sport as the Antithesis of Ideal Womanhood 31 III. THE VICTORIAN FAMILY AND CHILDHOOD ... 42 IV. THE SCHOOLS 56 Part I. Education 56 Part II. Physical Education 66 V. COSTUME AND WOMEN'S SPORT 85 VI. PATTERN OF NINETEENTH CENTURY WOMEN'S SPORT 101 VII. PROTAGONISM, ANTAGONISM AND COMPROMISE 126 VIII. SYNTHESIS OF VICTORIAN WOMAN'S SPORT: THE IRON STEED 148 IX. CONCLUSION 167 BIBLIOGRAPHY .183 iv LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Page Table 1. Some Dates in Organized Competitive Sports for Women 125 Figure 1. Rational Dress 84 Figure 2. Past and Present 89 Figure 3. A Ladies' Hockey Club at Play 100 Figure 4. "The Original English Lady Cricketers". .... 122 Figure 5. Women's Rights 147 v 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The idea for this research stemmed from an interest in Victorian history and women's studies which combined with an older interest in the history of sport. In order to make the topic more manageable, the inquiry concentrated on the middle-class woman in Victorian society. The central theme of the study concerned how the Victorian woman, particularly the middle-class woman, behaved in a sport* situation, how this affected her role as woman, and conversely, how her role as woman affected her sports participation. The study covered the time period of Queen Victoria's reign (1837-1901) with reference to pre­ ceding and following years when appropriate. Those women who participated in sport and those people who wrote about women in sport belonged primarily to the aristocracy and the middle class. They tended either to live in an urban area or to spend a great deal of time in town. Sportswomen were frequently active in a number of social roles which included philanthropy, journalism, public speaking and teaching. *For the purpose of this paper, sport is defined as a game, pastime or playful activity involving a reasonable degree of physical exertion, and for which learning and practice are necessary. 2 At first glance it seemed that the topic might lack sufficient reference material to warrant study. The stereotype of the Victorian woman does not suggest that she was very active in sport. On the contrary, research revealed that Victorian women were involved in many activities such as rifle shooting, long-distance swimming and scores of golf tournaments. Of course, what the Victorian woman did not do because of public disapproval was also important. Perhaps of most significance were the conditions under which she participated. This study provided an opportunity to explore Victorian society using sport as a reflecting glass. Conversely, the study offered the possibility of examining the effects of woman upon sport.