In Silence We Remember: The Historical Archaeology of Finnish Cemeteries in Saskatchewan A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan By Verna Elinor Gallén © Copyright Verna Elinor Gallén, June 2012. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying, publication, or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. Requests for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Department Head Department of Archaeology and Anthropology 55 Campus Drive University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5B1 i ABSTRACT Above-ground archaeological techniques are used to study six Finnish cemeteries in Saskatchewan as a material record of the way that Finnish immigrants saw themselves – individually, collectively, and within the larger society. Findings are overlaid with data about the social identity of Saskatchewan Finns drawn from oral and documentary records. Variations in the expressions of social identity provided by the different Finnish cemeteries are identified and explored. Also, four areas in which major changes in social identity occurred over time are identified and discussed: family structure and relationships, ethnicity, views of death, and social values and beliefs. Finally, a four-stage pattern of change in social identity over time that took place in all the Finnish cemeteries is described, and it is suggested that this pattern may be one that was shared by other immigrants to the western plains. A fuller understanding is developed of the immigrant experience, the nature of ethnicity, the factors affecting social identity, and the processes of cultural change in the settlement of Canada’s prairie region. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Support, encouragement and guidance were received from a great many people during this research, for which I am truly grateful. I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Margaret Kennedy, who was there to guide me at every step of the research process and provided me with an invaluable mentor. I would also like to thank the other members of my thesis committee, Drs. Chris Foley, David Meyer and Bill Waiser, for their helpful review of my work, and Dr. Elizabeth Robertson, who helped me to form my initial research idea. This research was made possible through funding provided by the University of Saskatchewan, the Saskatchewan Heritage Foundation, and the Saskatchewan Archaeological Society. Without their support, I could not have accomplished my research objectives. Also essential to the research was the support of the many cemetery authorities who took time from their busy lives to provide me with access to their cemeteries and cemetery records. I deeply appreciate the cooperation that I received from St. John’s Evangelical Lutheran Church (Wayne Huhtala and Audrey Dixon), Dunblane Finnish Cemetery (Greg Haapala), Finnish Heritage Cemetery (Clayton Jackson), Lance Valley Cemetery (Wayne Jansen), Highland Cemetery (Clayton Ylioja), and Holt/Mosten Cemetery (Loretta McConnell), as well as the towns of Shaunavon and Dinsmore, and the rural municipalities of Coteau, King George, Grassy Creek, and Mervin. The generosity of Stantec Consulting Ltd. in furthering the research at Finnish Heritage Cemetery deserves recognition, as does the permission given by Dan Pennock, Assistant Dean of Agricultural Resources, to use some university equipment in mapping the cemeteries. Ethical considerations regarding confidentiality do not allow me to acknowledge by name the people who participated in interviews and field visits to help me understand the various Finnish cemeteries. Nevertheless, I would like to thank them here for their cooperation and hospitality as well as the insights and information they provided. The time I spent with these informants was one of the great rewards of this project. Also contributing to the research were many individuals who shared their knowledge about a great many subjects that informed my studies, including Frank McDougall, David Gallén and Jaylene Carlson. In addition, I benefited from the support and information supplied by other iii academics, writers and researchers, including Maureen Pedersen, Bill Elliott, Arnold Alanen, Larry Warwaruk, Brenda Niskala, Tammy Vallee and Kaj Höglund. It was wonderful to feel part of a community that worked and learned together. Contributing significantly to my learning efforts were the services provided by the Saskatchewan Archives Board and the special collections and interlibrary loans departments of the University of Saskatchewan library. I cannot thank the staffs of these efficient and dedicated organizations enough. Numerous volunteers and visitors who visited the cemeteries in which I was gathering data deserve special mention. They provided information and assistance, and they also made my fieldwork enjoyable. The Saskatchewan Archaeological Society was especially helpful in making sure that its members were aware of my research. A deep debt of gratitude is owed to my husband, Peter Gallén. Not only was his understanding of Finnish language and culture vital to the success of my research, his companionship made the whole thing so much fun. Any errors or omissions related to the translations in this thesis are definitely my fault, not his – as he would be the first to tell you. Finally, Peter and I were privileged to meet many Saskatchewan people with Finnish ancestry while studying the Finnish cemeteries. They were inspirational in relating their own stories and sharing with us the experiences of their communities. I hope we were able to do some justice to the remarkable history and culture of these people, who have gained our admiration and our affection. Kiitos ja kaikkea hyvää teille kaikille. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Permission to Use ........................................................................................................................... i Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ...........................................................................................................................v List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations .....................................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1 1.1 Finnish Communities and Cemeteries in Saskatchewan ........................................................1 1.2 Research Goals and Questions ................................................................................................3 1.3 Theoretical Foundations..........................................................................................................5 1.4 Thesis Organization ................................................................................................................8 CHAPTER 2: THE ABOVE-GROUND ARCHAEOLOGY OF FINNISH CEMETERIES ON THE WESTERN PLAINS: A LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................10 2.1 The Finns and Finnish Culture ..............................................................................................10 2.2 Cemeteries and Deathways ...................................................................................................15 2.2.1 Cemetery Studies ......................................................................................................16 2.2.2 Deathways and the History of Cemeteries ................................................................27 2.3 Some Observations from the Literature ................................................................................32 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .....................................................................33 3.1 Historical Archaeology in Cemeteries ..................................................................................33 3.2 Research Ethics .....................................................................................................................34 3.3 Data Gathering ......................................................................................................................36