DEMYSTIFYING THE SAINT: JAY L. GARFIELDʼS RATIONAL RECONSTRUCTION OF NĀGĀRJUNAʼS MĀDHYAMAKA AS THE EPITOME OF CONTEMPORARY CROSS-CULTURAL PHILOSOPHY TIINA ROSENQVIST Tampereen yliopisto Yhteiskunta- ja kulttuuritieteiden yksikkö Filosofian pro gradu -tutkielma Tammikuu 2011 ABSTRACT Cross-cultural philosophy approaches philosophical problems by setting into dialogue systems and perspectives from across cultures. I use the term more specifically to refer to the current stage in the history of comparative philosophy marked by the ethos of scholarly self-reflection and the production of rational reconstructions of foreign philosophies. These reconstructions lend a new kind of relevance to cross-cultural perspectives in mainstream philosophical discourses. I view Jay L. Garfieldʼs work as an example of this. I examine Garfieldʼs approach in the context of Nāgārjuna scholarship and cross-cultural hermeneutics. By situating it historically and discussing its background and implications, I wish to highlight its distinctive features. Even though Garfield has worked with Buddhist philosophy, I believe he has a lot to offer to the meta-level discussion of cross-cultural philosophy in general. I argue that the clarity of Garfieldʼs vision of the nature and function of cross-cultural philosophy can help alleviate the identity crisis that has plagued the enterprise: Garfield brings it closer to (mainstream) philosophy and helps it stand apart from Indology, Buddhology, area studies philosophy (etc). I side with Garfield in arguing that cross- cultural philosophy not only brings us better understanding of other philosophical traditions, but may enhance our self-understanding as well. I furthermore hold that his employment of Western conceptual frameworks (post-Wittgensteinian language philosophy, skepticism) and theoretical tools (paraconsistent logic, Wittgensteinian epistemology) together with the influence of Buddhist interpretative lineages creates a coherent, cogent, holistic and analytically precise reading of Nāgārjunaʼs Mādhyamaka philosophy. CONTENTS PART 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 5 1.1 CROSS-CULTURAL PHILOSOPHY...................................................................................... 5 1.2 NĀGĀRJUNA ......................................................................................................................10 1.3 JAY L. GARFIELD................................................................................................................ 12 1.4 OBJECTIVES AND GOALS................................................................................................. 14 PART 2: NĀGĀRJUNA IN CONTEXT.......................................................... 18 2.1 BUDDHISM........................................................................................................................... 18 2.1.1 CATEGORIZING BUDDHISM..................................................................................... 19 2.1.2 SHAKYAMUNI AND THE BIRTH OF BUDDHA-DHARMA......................................... 20 2.1.3 SECTARIAN BUDDHISM AND EARLY MAHĀYĀNA.................................................. 22 2.2 LOCATING NĀGĀRJUNA.................................................................................................... 25 2.2.1 THE LEGEND(S) OF NĀGĀRJUNA........................................................................... 25 2.2.2 NĀGĀRJUNA THE MAHĀYĀNIST: A CRITICAL VIEW.............................................. 27 2.3 SOME MĀDHYAMAKA DEVELOPMENTS.......................................................................... 29 2.3.1 THE MĀDHYAMAKA SPLIT: PRĀSAṄGIKA AND SVĀTANTRIKA............................. 30 2.3.2 CHINESE AND TIBETAN ELABORATIONS............................................................... 31 PART 3: AN OVERVIEW OF NĀGĀRJUNAʼS PHILOSOPHY...................... 34 3.1 MULAMĀDHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ ........................................................................................... 34 3.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EMPTINESS................................................................................... 36 3.2.1 EMPTINESS AS THE DENIAL OF INTRINSIC EXISTENCE..................................... 36 3.2.2 EMPTINESS AS DEPENDENT ARISING................................................................... 38 3.2.3 THE EMPTINESS OF EMPTINESS AND THE THEORY OF TWO TRUTHS............ 41 PART 4: TRENDS AND SHIFTS IN NĀGĀRJUNA SCHOLARSHIP............ 46 4.1 UNFOUNDED ANTIPATHIES: NĀGĀRJUNA THE NIHILIST.............................................. 46 4.2 ALONG KANTIAN LINES: NĀGĀRJUNA THE ABSOLUTIST............................................ 48 4.3 ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHERS: NĀGĀRJUNA THE DIALECTICIAN................................... 51 4.4 POST-WITTGENSTEINIAN PERSPECTIVE: NĀGĀRJUNA THE THERAPIST................. 55 PART 5: GARFIELDʼS INTERPRETATION OF NĀGĀRJUNA..................... 60 5.1 PREJUDICES REVEALED.................................................................................................. 60 5.2 NĀGĀRJUNA THE SKEPTIC............................................................................................... 63 5.2.1 SKEPTICISM EAST AND WEST................................................................................ 64 5.2.2 THE SKILLFUL SKEPTIC.......................................................................................... 70 5.2.3 SKEPTICISM AND VIEWS......................................................................................... 73 5.2.3.1 Nāgārjunaʼs Right View................................................................................................... 74 5.2.3.2 Conventionalist Regularism and the Emptiness of Causation .........................................75 5.2.3.3 Conventions as the Foundation of Ontology ................................................................... 78 5.2.4 GARFIELDʼS ANTI-ESSENTIALIST THERAPY.......................................................... 79 5.3 NĀGĀRJUNA AND THE ULTIMATE.................................................................................... 83 5.3.1 MYSTICISM REVISITED............................................................................................ 83 5.3.2 NĀGĀRJUNA AND THE LIMITS OF REASON.......................................................... 86 5.3.2.1 Paraconsistency and Dialetheism ................................................................................... 86 5.3.2.2 Nāgārjuna the Dialetheist ................................................................................................88 5.3.3 GONE, GONE, GONE BEYOND: DIRECT AWARENESS......................................... 92 5.4 THE LAUNDRY: NĀGĀRJUNA, GARFIELD AND PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSE.......... 97 PART 6: PHILOSOPHY ACROSS CULTURES.......................................... 101 6.1 CROSS-CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING........................................................................... 101 6.1.2 WHAT GOES ON IN INTERPRETATION.................................................................. 102 6.1.2 GADAMERʼS PHILOSOPHICAL HERMENEUTICS................................................. 106 6.1.3 CROSS-CULTURAL HERMENEUTICS.................................................................... 110 6.2 BOUNDARIES AND POLITICS.......................................................................................... 116 6.3 GARFIELD: FROM COMPARATIVE TO CROSS-CULTURAL.......................................... 121 6.4 APPROACHES TO NĀGĀRJUNA RECONSIDERED....................................................... 124 PART 7: CONCLUSIONS............................................................................ 132 7.1 NĀGĀRJUNA SCHOLARSHIP AND CROSS-CULTURAL INTERPRETATION............... 132 7.2 GARFIELDʼS PROJECT..................................................................................................... 136 7.3 WHERE TO GO FROM HERE?.......................................................................................... 138 REFERENCES............................................................................................. 139 1 PART 1: INTRODUCTION This thesis operates on two levels. For one, it attempts to provide a general overview of the task of approaching, interpreting, and working with culturally distant philosophical systems. This involves asking questions concerning hermeneutics, metaphilosophy, methodology and the philosophy of (cross-cultural) scholarship. The second level, which is more specific, examines the recent trend of self-conscious scholarship in cross-cultural philosophy, as represented and personified by Jay L. Garfield, whose philosophical projects have bridged the gap between cross-cultural philosophy and the act of philosophizing, i.e., doing philosophy by creating new perspectives. I believe that Garfield’s holistic take on the issue, together with his lucid arguments for the necessity of cross- cultural philosophy, epitomizes the current maturation process of the enterprise and can provide the much-needed momentum for bringing cross-cultural perspectives from the margins of philosophy to the center stage. 1.1 CROSS-CULTURAL PHILOSOPHY The terms ‘comparative philosophy’ and ‘cross-cultural philosophy’ are sometimes used interchangeably to denote a subfield of philosophy in which philosophical problems are approached by “intentionally setting into dialogue sources from across cultural, linguistic, and philosophical streams.”1 The stereotypical cross-cultural dialogue takes place across the East/West -axis: the “West” refers to the