THE TRANSFORMATION OF BLACK SCHOOL EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA, 1950-1994: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Thesis by Mafu Solomon Rakometsi (Magister Artium) submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR in the Faculty of Humanities (Department of History) at the University of the Free State BLOEMFONTEIN Promoter: Prof. S.L. Barnard Co-Promoter: Prof. N.C. de Wet Bloemfontein November 2008 ii DECLARATION I, Mafu Solomon Rakometsi, affirm that the thesis, The transformation of Black school education in South Africa, 1950-1994: A historical perspective, for the degree of PhD in the Department of History, at the University of the Free State, hereby submitted, has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university, and that it is my own work in design and execution, and that all the material contained herein is recognised. I furthermore cede copyright of the thesis in favour of the University of the Free State. Signature : ……………………………………….. Date : ……………………………………….. Place : ……………………………………….. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Declaration............................................................................................................ ii Foreword............................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 2 Education under apartheid: The reaction of the South African population to apartheid legislation, 1948 to 1960 2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 11 2.2 The National Party election victory and control of government...................... 12 2.3 The CNE and the laws affecting Black education............................................ 27 2.4 The Eiselen Commission on Black education and its recommendations......... 46 2.5 Bantu Education and reaction to its legislation................................................ 59 2.6 Resistance to Bantu Education......................................................................... 81 2.7 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 103 Chapter 3 The homeland system and the extension of apartheid legislation to Coloured and Indian education 3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 107 3.2 Political developments in South African in the early 1960s............................ 108 3.3 The Tomlinson Commission and the homeland system.................................. 113 3.4 Bantu Education for a Bantu economy and the migrant labour system.......... 129 3.5 Evaluation of the impact of the Bantu Education system............................... 141 iv 3.6 The education of the Coloureds and Indians.................................................. 154 3.7 Combating subversion among Blacks and the medium of instruction in Post-Primary Schools………………....................................................... 165 3.8 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 168 Chapter 4 The 1976 Soweto learners’ uprising, its aftermath and the granting of ‘independence’ to homelands (1975-1979) 4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 171 4.2 Background to the 1976 Soweto learners’ uprising...................................... 171 4.3 The learners’ uprising of 16 June 1976........................................................ 179 4.4 The granting of ‘independence’ to homelands............................................. 240 4.5 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 265 Chapter 5 The period of mass democratic movement and education transformation (1980-1993) 5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 269 5.2 The formation of national learner bodies, calls for reforms in education for Blacks and the 1980 school unrest......................................................... 270 5.3 The De Lange Commission of Enquiry into education............................... 291 5.4 The 1983 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and the formation of extra-parliamentary organisations......................................... 298 5.5 Calls for “liberation first, and education later” and the deepening crisis in education................................................................................................. 311 5.6 The government counteroffensive strategy against opponents of apartheid...................................................................................................... 319 5.7 The National Education Crisis Committee and “People’s Education”…... 325 5.8 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 344 v Chapter 6 The last vestiges of apartheid and segregated education 6.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 348 6.2 Corporate intervention in education and training and sanctions against South Africa .............................................................................................. 350 6.3 In search of teacher unity........................................................................... 365 6.4 The introduction of democratic political reforms in South Africa............ 391 6.5 Pressures facing education in the run up to democracy............................ 406 6.6 Key principles and values underpinning education in the democratic South Africa.............................................................................................. 416 6.7 Conclusion................................................................................................ 422 Chapter 7 Final Critique................................................................................................... 425 Appendices Appendix 1 Black learners enrolled in Bantu Education schools from 1953 to 1988........................................................................... 447 Appendix 2 Bantu Education Matriculation pass rates from 1953 to 1960....................................................................................... 448 Appendix 3 Drop-out rate in Black schools illustrated by the 1962 learner intake......................................................................... 449 Appendix 4 Inscriptions at the Hector Peterson Memorial site................ 450 Appendix 5 Per capita expenditure for different population groups in education from 1953 to 1983................................................. 452 Appendix 6 Resolutions taken at the First National Consultative Conference on the crisis in education…................................ 453 Appendix 7 Resolutions taken at the Second National Consultative Conference on the crisis in education.................................... 460 vi Appendix 8 Recognised teacher organisations and progressive teacher organisations (and their affiliates).......................................... 467 Appendix 9 Guidelines of the National Teacher Unity Forum (1988)...... 469 Appendix 10 1990 SADTU Congress resolutions....................................... 471 Source List..................................................................................................... 478 Abstract.......................................................................................................... 532 Opsomming.................................................................................................... 535 Kgutsufatso.................................................................................................... 538 vii FOREWORD This study explores the transformation of Black school education in South Africa from 1950 to 1994. The study examines the events that necessitated the transformation of the political landscape, which in turn led to the post-apartheid process of social and political change to establish democracy and social equality. In the context of this study a penetrating investigation of the events that necessitated transformation will be examined in order to lay the foundation for a proper understanding of the pressures for transformation. The research and historical assessment of the transformation of Black school education in South Africa became necessary due to the fact that limited research has been conducted on this transformation process. Although social scientists and historians alike have written much on issues linked to the transformation of education in South Africa, a methodical, systematic analysis of the developments leading up to the transformation of education in South Africa from a historical and education perspective has thus far not yet been undertaken. A historical education viewpoint of the central theme of the transformation of education in South Africa, laying the foundation with the developments of the 1950s and 1960s, is crucial to the understanding of transformation in the decades to follow up to 1994. The transformation of education can only be fully analysed and assessed by evaluating the reaction of the South African population and major role players to apartheid education legislation. An in-depth study of the changes introduced in the education