The Life and Collected Works of Tibetan Lojong Master Tokmé Zangpo (1295-1369) I-Ling Chien Taipei, Taiwan M.A., Religious Studies, University of Virginia, 2009 M.A., Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies, Taiwan, 2007 B.A., National Central University, Taiwan, 2003 A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Religious Studies University of Virginia August, 2015 ii Abstract This study concerns the biography and Collected Works of Tibetan Lojong master Tokmé Zangpo (1295-1369). Among diverse Buddhist spiritual exercises, the cultivation of compassion explored in Tibetan Lojong, or mind training, literature is arguably the most prominent and popular teaching about compassion meditation. Beginning in the early twelfth century, texts about Lojong teachings gradually evolved into a category of Lojong literature, which became a shared heritage across various Tibetan Buddhist schools. Tibetan master Tokmé Zangpo is renowned for explaining this material in his Collected Works. Tokmé Zangpo’s biography also reflects his Lojong character. This dissertation examines how Tokmé Zangpo is portrayed as a unique compassionate personality in his biography. The research also explores his Collected Works as a source to understand the Lojong tradition. Chapter 1 investigates the relations between the earliest three Tokmé Zangpo biographies. I compare related information in the contents of these three works, as well as other textual evidence to determine their composition times. In so doing, I discover the true identity of the biographer, Zhönnu Gyeltsen Pelzangpo, and that Guide to Your Devotion could be the earliest existing version of Tokmé Zangpo’s biography. Chapter 2 chooses three themes with which to analyze Tokmé Zangpo’s childhood, educational background, and compassionate actions as described in Guide to Your Devotion. Chapter 3 contributes the first research on the authorship and editorship of four editions of Tokmé Zangpo’s Collected Works. This chapter investigates their compilation history. Chapter 4 analyzes the textual organization in Degé Collected Works and divides its one hundred and fourteen texts into ten different categories. This analysis discovers that Degé Collected Works functions as a central source for understanding Tokmé Zangpo’s Lojong philosophy. Chapter 5 shows that Tokmé Zangpo’s concept for his Lojong lineage was shaped by his involvement with Kadam masters and texts. I argue that the unique element of Tokmé Zangpo’s Lojong lineage is the inclusion of the five masters who are associated with Asaṅga. By so doing, Tokmé Zangpo created a better credibility for his Lojong lineage. In conclusion, this dissertation contributes to the study of Tokmé Zangpo’s biography and Collected Works as related to the subject on Lojong. iii Acknowledgements In terms of my studies at the University of Virginia, I am thankful to the committee of Dharma Drum Mountain in Taiwan who provided with me essential financial support. Dharma Drum Mountain also connected me with faculty at U.Va. and institutions in the United States when I decided to pursue my study here. The research for this dissertation took place in India, Tibet, and China. My field work in these places was funded by the China Times Cultural Foundation, the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange, U.Va.’s East Asia Center and the Weedon-Penn travel grant. I am thankful for their support. In Beijing, I appreciate the faculty’s and my friends’ help at Minzu University of China, especially Zhoula, Drakpa Jungné, and Ozhu Cuomu. They were patient with me in deciphering the multiple meanings inherent in literary Tibetan. In Dharamshala, I appreciate help given by my friends and the librarians at the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. I especially thank Tashi Tsering of the Amnye Machen Institute, who offered me abundant references. I owe the most to two Tibetan monastic scholars, Luosang Wongdui and Sonam Gompo. They never hesitated to answer my questions through Wechat and Skype even after my return to the United States from India. At U.Va., I thank my advisor Karen Lang who tolerated my slow learning, pointed out possible directions for my research, and gave me emotional support. I thank Kurtis Schaeffer who inspired my research in Lojong and Collected Works. I thank Jalane Schmidt who wrote down her insightful comments throughout my draft. I thank John Shepherd who helped me extend my study in Chinese religions. I thank Paul Groner, who never stops teasing me, which has let me face stress with a more humorous attitude. I thank TBRC researcher Kelsang Lhamo, Alderman librarian Nawang Thokmey, and Khenpo Khenpo Rikpé Dorjé in Charlottesville. They helped resolve difficult issues presented by colophons and Tibetan printings. I am lucky to have the following fellows who encouraged my study at U.Va.: Chris Bell, Chris Hiebert, Jue Liang, Christie Kilby, Kamaoji, Manu Lopez, Ben McClintic, Bill McGrath, Alison Melnick, Natasha Mikles, Eva Natanya, Ben Nourse, Ananda Reed, Jann Ronis, Zach Rowinski, Michael Schuman, Brenton Sullivan, Nick Trautz, Jed Verity, Katarina Turpeinen, Alberto Todeschini, Naomi Worth, Jongbok Yi, and many others. I appreciate my parents and family in Taiwan. While they cannot fully appreciate my career choice in Religious Studies, they still provide me with their best understanding. I thank my editor, Caitlin Conley, who proofread my writing whenever I needed it. I thank John Ragland, who often brought sweets or dinner when I was confined in my place for writing. Last, I thank my Emo, the best life coach. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Introduction _________________________________________________________ 1 The Concept and Translation of the Term Lojong_________________________ 4 Situating Tokmé Zangpo in History ___________________________________ 9 Chapter Summary ________________________________________________ 12 Chapter One: Editions of Tokmé Zangpo’s Earliest Biographies ____________ 15 Introduction ______________________________________________________ 15 The Earliest Versions of Tokmé Zangpo’s Biographies___________________ 16 1. The Biographer of Guide to Your Devotion _________________________ 16 2. The Composition of Guide to Your Devotion _______________________ 35 3. The Composition of Ray of Altruism ______________________________ 38 4. The Composition of Drops of Ambrosia ___________________________ 41 Conclusion: Selecting Guide to Your Devotion _________________________ 47 Chapter Two: Tokmé Zangpo’s Life Story as Narrated in Guide to Your Devotion ___________________________________________________________________ 50 Introduction ______________________________________________________ 50 1. An Unusually Empathetic Child Born into an Excellent Family _________ 53 2. Education ___________________________________________________ 60 3. Tokmé Zangpo as an Ethical Model of Lojong ______________________ 70 Conclusion _______________________________________________________ 77 Chapter Three: The Editions of Tokmé Zangpo’s Collected Works __________ 79 Introduction ______________________________________________________ 79 Bhutan Fragmentary Collected Works ________________________________ 82 Degé Collected Works ______________________________________________ 92 The Fifth Dalai Lama and the “113 Texts” _____________________________ 96 The Fifth Dalai Lama and Degé Collected Works _______________________ 100 The Printing of Degé Collected Works _______________________________ 114 Labrang Collected Works __________________________________________ 116 v Manuscript of Fragmentary Collected Works _________________________ 119 Conclusion ______________________________________________________ 124 Chapter Four: Textual Organization in Degé Collected Works _____________ 127 Introduction _____________________________________________________ 127 The Organization of Degé Collected Works ___________________________ 129 The First Three Categories _________________________________________ 133 Other Categories ________________________________________________ 154 Category 4 ___________________________________________________ 154 Category 5 ___________________________________________________ 157 Category 6 ___________________________________________________ 157 Category 7 ___________________________________________________ 158 Category 8 ___________________________________________________ 161 Category 9 ___________________________________________________ 168 Category 10 __________________________________________________ 169 Texts Related to Lojong Teachings in Degé Collected Works _____________ 169 Conclusion ______________________________________________________ 172 Chapter Five: Tokmé Zangpo’s Lojong Lineage in Degé Collected Works ____ 176 Introduction _____________________________________________________ 177 Lojong and Bodhicitta ____________________________________________ 178 The Establishment of Lojong Lineage ________________________________ 186 Conclusion ______________________________________________________ 200 Conclusion ________________________________________________________ 202 Appendix 1 ________________________________________________________ 207 Appendix 2 ________________________________________________________ 214 Bibliography ______________________________________________________ 226 Sources in English ________________________________________________ 226 Sources in Tibetan ________________________________________________