UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Masks in Disguise: Exposing Minstrelsy and Racial Representation within American Tap Dance Performances of the Stage, Screen, and Sound Cartoon, 1900-1950 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Culture and Performance by Brynn Wein Shiovitz 2016 © Copyright by Brynn Wein Shiovitz 2016 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Masks in Disguise: Exposing Minstrelsy and Racial Representation within American Tap Dance Performances of the Stage, Screen, and Sound Cartoon, 1900-1950 by Brynn Wein Shiovitz Doctor of Philosophy in Culture and Performance University of California, Los Angeles, 2016 Professor Susan Leigh Foster, Chair Masks in Disguise: Exposing Minstrelsy and Racial Representation within American Tap Dance Performances of the Stage, Screen, and Sound Cartoon, 1900-1950, looks at the many forms of masking at play in three pivotal, yet untheorized, tap dance performances of the twentieth century in order to expose how minstrelsy operates through various forms of masking. The three performances that I examine are: George M. Cohan’s production of Little Johnny ii Jones (1904), Eleanor Powell’s “Tribute to Bill Robinson” in Honolulu (1939), and Terry- Toons’ cartoon, “The Dancing Shoes” (1949). These performances share an obvious move away from the use of blackface makeup within a minstrel context, and a move towards the masked enjoyment in “black culture” as it contributes to the development of a uniquely American form of entertainment. In bringing these three disparate performances into dialogue I illuminate the many ways in which American entertainment has been built upon an Africanist aesthetic at the same time it has generally disparaged the black body. These three shows replaced the practice of blacking up with new (invisible) means of masking; by relying heavily on music, dance, narrative, and technology, and taking the focus away from the black and/or black-faced body, these shows offered national unity through the exclusion of an Other in a socially accepted manner. I have constructed a theory of covert minstrelsy to describe a process that occurs when a choreographer, director, or animator utilizes a combination of invisible masks simultaneously in an effort—though not always a conscious one—to distract the audience from seeing all parts of the whole. In each of the performances I analyze, these different masks interact to produce an “agreeable” show that places artificial boundaries between the supposed threat of the black body and the alleged purity of a nation that favors its white citizens. I seek to illuminate how the very simultaneity of perceptible (yet invisible) components goes unnoticed under deceptive narratives and political charades; minstrelsy need not be blatant or even visible to construct a social paradigm of the “Other”. iii The dissertation of Brynn Wein Shiovitz is approved. Yogita Goyal Anthea Kraut David John Roussève Janet M. O’Shea Susan Leigh Foster, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2016 iv For anyone who has ever been forced to wear a mask, felt the need to hide who she is, or been vulnerable enough to uncover the person beneath. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract of the Dissertation ii Dedication v Acknowledgments viii Vita xi PROLOGUE 1 CHAPTER ONE 35 Exchanging “Coon” for Cork: Covert Minstrelsy, Sonic Slippage, George M. Cohan’s Stage Mis-en-scène 36 An Introduction 43 Staging the “Other” History: Black-on-White; Black-on-Black; Yellow 52 Underscore: The Syncopated, Improvised Notes that Vanished from the American Songbook 75 Moving Notes: Cakewalk; Virginny Essence; Buck-and-Wing 95 Coda 117 CHAPTER TWO 120 “Tributes” Overwriting Sound: A New Face of Blackface in Hollywood Films of the 1930s Mis-en-scène 121 An Introduction 132 Screening the “Other” History: Black-on-White; Black-and-Black; Brown 148 Sound Effects: Background Music, Soundtracks, and Subversive Melodies 160 A Lighter Aesthetic: Robinson, Powell, and Hula-Tap 179 Coda 214 CHAPTER THREE 217 Substituting Magpies for Men: Feathered Coats, Jim Crow Tales, and “Other” Animated Footage Mis-en-scène 218 vi An Introduction 226 Animating the “Other” History: Black-on-White; Protean; Red 241 Sound Affects: Voices, Detachment, and ‘Mammy’ Issues 280 Dynamic Movement: Eye Tricks, Hat Tricks, and Dancing Shoes 295 Coda 311 EPILOGUE 314 APPENDIX A 322 Song Lyrics, Scores, and Poetry APPENDIX B 334 Newspaper Clippings, Promotional Materials, Advertisements, and Programs APPENDIX C 342 Photographs and Other Images APPENDIX D 350 Scripts, Charts, and Supplementary Information REFERENCES 354 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Having never written a document of this breadth and scope, I owe the completion of this project to many individuals, organizations, and institutions. When proposing Masks in Disguise to my committee three years ago, there was some concern as to whether the consummation of such an undertaking would even be possible given the University’s imposed deadlines and financial constraints. Despite cursing myself at certain junctures along the way for taking on such a layered project, I did make it to the finish line. In spite of its challenges, not a day goes by that I regret the decision to pursue this work or underestimate the value of an indestructible support system. I am overwhelmed by the amount of love and faith my family and friends have provided for me throughout the duration of this process. Mom, you put me in my very first tap class, exposed me to eclectic beats and polyrhythms from the “inside,” and believed in me from day one. I am grateful for your continued support and willingness to grow together. Dad, without your unwavering companionship, encouragement, and entertainment I could not have survived this process: you remain the only person outside of my committee to have read my ENTIRE manuscript, you indulged me in my rarest of forms, and without our weekly walks and talks “protean”—amongst other neologisms—would have never come to be. Zoe, I thank you for your unconditional love, friendship, and laughter. You are truly the best little Mossy for which any sister could ask. Toni, you let me sit in on my very first college lecture at the ripe old age of three and inspired my decision to pursue this profession; you have been an impactful part of this whole process. Josh, you are my perfect complement in life and partner in crime. You have offered so much love, stability, and balance throughout this turbulent process and continue, daily, to demonstrate your commitment to all parts of me. Thank you for your big heart, open viii ears, and clever “quills”. “Team Brynn,” you have held me up, heard me out, and cheered me on. I am blessed to have such a dedicated crew. Gwyneth Shanks (ynnsh), thank you for being my second set of eyes and editing angel, amongst other things. Melissa, you have taught me the true meaning of disguise, and helped to illuminate those modes and processes that threaten to conceal the person hiding underneath the mask. I am eternally grateful for your patience, compassion, and trust. Our work together has shaped not only the subject matter of this dissertation but changed the person who thinks, feels, and writes from behind the screen. I cannot think of a cooler, smarter, more incredible committee than the one that allowed Masks in Disguise to come to fruition. Under the guidance of my chair, Dr. Susan Leigh Foster, I learned so much about the writing process and gained invaluable insight into academia. Susan, you believed in this project from its inception and have since offered generously your time, experience, and honesty to make me the best scholar I can be. Dr. Janet O’Shea, thank you for your optimism and overall support in this endeavor. You were a guiding force in the development of my prospectus and your class on corporeality shaped much of Chapter Two. Dr. Yogita Goyal, thank you for introducing me to the black Atlantic and offering a space to explore so many of this dissertation’s theoretical lenses. You have always made me feel like my voice matters and offered constructive vantage points from which to view relevant concepts. Dr. Anthea Kraut, I am so grateful for you taking on my project despite the geography that separates your campus from mine. Your attention to detail is superb and you have a knack for seeing things and sides others do not. Thank you for your feedback and your questions. They have been formative in cultivating this document and its future iterations. Professor David Roussève, thank you for responding under the wire and for making yourself available at crucial moments throughout this process. Lynn Dally, you have been a wonderful listener, teacher, and friend; my ix time at UCLA would not have been the same without you. Thank you for your insight, encouragement, and joie de vivre, and for continuously reminding me why I do what I do. Margaret Morrison—my fellow tapademic—thank you for all of your mentorship inside the studio and out. You have been a fantastic sounding board, conference companion, and confidant during my progression from student to colleague. Finally I would like to thank the entire Department of World Arts and Cultures/Dance for giving me a home and affirming my path. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to all of those librarians and archivists that have given me access to the books and fossils that make up this project’s foundation. David, at UCLA’s Young Research Library, thank you for taking an interest in my work and greeting me by name upon the retrieval and return of ALL of my books. To the Museum of the City of New York, thank you for digging up the entire contents of your George M.