Yagenich L.V., Kirillova I.I., Siritsa Ye.A. Latin and main principals of anatomical, pharmaceutical and clinical terminology (Student's book) Simferopol, 2017 Contents No. Topics Page 1. UNIT I. Latin language history. Phonetics. Alphabet. Vowels and consonants classification. Diphthongs. Digraphs. Letter combinations. 4-13 Syllable shortness and longitude. Stress rules. 2. UNIT II. Grammatical noun categories, declension characteristics, noun 14-25 dictionary forms, determination of the noun stems, nominative and genitive cases and their significance in terms formation. I-st noun declension. 3. UNIT III. Adjectives and its grammatical categories. Classes of adjectives. Adjective entries in dictionaries. Adjectives of the I-st group. Gender 26-36 endings, stem-determining. 4. UNIT IV. Adjectives of the 2-nd group. Morphological characteristics of two- and multi-word anatomical terms. Syntax of two- and multi-word 37-49 anatomical terms. Nouns of the 2nd declension 5. UNIT V. General characteristic of the nouns of the 3rd declension. Parisyllabic and imparisyllabic nouns. Types of stems of the nouns of the 50-58 3rd declension and their peculiarities. 3rd declension nouns in combination with agreed and non-agreed attributes 6. UNIT VI. Peculiarities of 3rd declension nouns of masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Muscle names referring to their functions. Exceptions to the 59-71 gender rule of 3rd declension nouns for all three genders 7. UNIT VII. 1st, 2nd and 3rd declension nouns in combination with II class adjectives. Present Participle and its declension. Anatomical terms 72-81 consisting of nouns and participles 8. UNIT VIII. Nouns of the 4th and 5th declensions and their combination with 82-89 adjectives 9. UNIT IX. Pharmaceutical terminology. 91-104 Trivial (conditional) names of medicines. Botanic nomenclature. Medicinal plant names. 10. UNIT X. Prescription structure. Latin prescription part. Verb in the 105-118 prescriptions. Prescription definition and methods of their translation into Russian, abbreviations and their interpreting. 11. UNIT XI. Chemical nomenclature. Latin names of the chemical elements 119-133 and their compounds (acids, oxides, salts, esters). 12. UNIT XII. Prescribing solid, semisold and liquid dosage forms. 134-151 13. UNIT XIII. Structure of clinical terms. Word formation. Greek and Latin 153-164 doublets 14. UNIT XIV. Word formation. Greek suffixes -itis, -osis, -oma, -iasis, -ismus 165-176 in clinical terminology. Prefixes. Antonymic pairs of prefixes and their meaning. CFs denoting functional and pathological processes and conditions of the human body. 15. UNIT XV. Word formation. Greek-Latin doublets, specifying body parts, 177-187 internal organs and tissues. Terminoelements denoting surgical operations. 16. UNIT XVI. Multiword clinical terms referring to diagnoses and 188-199 pathological processes in the main branches of medicine. Translation of - 2 - clinical diagnoses. 17. UNIT XVII. Revision of lexical and grammatical material on ―Drug 200-205 Nomenclature and Prescription Writing‖ and ―Clinical Terminology‖. Final test. 18. Appendix 206-208 19. Latin-English Vocabulary of anatomical, pharmaceutical and clinical 209-297 terminology - 3 - UNIT I. Latin language history. Phonetics. Alphabet. Vowels and consonants classification. Diphthongs. Digraphs. Letter combinations. Syllable shortness and longitude. Stress rules. In this unit General idea of Latin phonetics. Latin alphabet Pronunciation of vowels, consonants and diphthongs Letter combinations and Greek digraphs Long and short syllables and word stress The subject you are going to study is the Latin Language. To some point, this name is relative, because nowadays there are no people speaking Latin. From the school course of world history you can remember, that many centuries ago, where nowadays Italy is, there was the Roman Empire. The Roman state, which included many lands and people, existed until 464 A.D. and Latin was its native language. Latin was the language of the area known as Latium (modern Lazio), and Rome was one of the towns of Latium founded by an Italian tribe in 753 B.C. Gradually, century after century, Rome became the most powerful state of the Mediterranean and Latin was widespread and acknowledged. At the time of Aristotle and Alexander, Rome was still an obscure city on the world stage, though it was beginning to assume a dominant role on the Italian peninsula. Within two hundred years, Rome had conquered most of the Mediterranean, including the ancient city-states of Greece. By the first century of the Christian era, the vast Roman Empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Black Sea, from Egypt to the British Isles. Latin, once merely a regional Italic dialect in and around the city of Rome, had become the spoken and written language for most of what is today western Europe. Boasting a major literature of its own, it was also the medium by which the great achievements of Greece would be transmitted to the west. As Christianity developed, the Hebrew and Greek Bibles were translated into Latin. Even after the fall of Rome and the emergence of medieval Europe, Latin continued to thrive, especially within the powerful Catholic Church. It also became the language of state establishments, education and science. Every university would have a medical faculty. Diplomas and theses as well as the process of education itself were in Latin. In those areas where the use of Latin had become well established over centuries of empire, regional dialects of Latin evolved into new and distinct vernacular languages, including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. Modern Latin was used by the Roman Catholic Church until the mid-20th century and is still used to some extent, particularly in the Vatican City, where it is one of the official languages. As for medicine, Latin became the international professional language of physicians. Medical terms rooting from Latin and Greek are presented in any European language as borrowings. It is estimated that about three-fourths of medical terminology is of Greek origin. The main reason for this is that the Greeks were the founders of rational medicine in the golden age of Greek civilization in the 5th Century B.C. The Hippocratic School and, later on, Galen (the Greek from Asia Minor who lived in Rome in the 2nd century A.D.) formulated the theories, which dominated medicine up to the beginning of the 18th Century. The Hippocratics were the first to describe diseases based on observation, and the names given by them to many conditions are still used today, for example, arthritis, nephritis, pleuritis (pleurisy). A second reason for the large number of Greek medical terms is that the Greek language is quite suitable for the building of compound words. When new terms were needed, with the rapid expansion of medical science during the last centuries, Greek words or Latin words with Greek endings were used to express the new ideas, - 4 - conditions, or instruments. The new words follow the older models so closely that it is impossible to distinguish the two by their forms. Such recent words as appendicitis, creatinine, cystoscope, epinephrine, streptococcus, and many others do not appear different from the classical terms. The fact is that about one-half of our medical terminology is less than a century old. A third reason for using the classical roots is that they form an international language. Latin in medical terminology Greek medicine migrated to Rome at an early date, and many Latin terms crept into its terminology. Latin was the language of science up to the beginning of the 18th century, so all medical texts were written in Latin. Under the influence of the great anatomical work of Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica (1543), the terminology of anatomy is almost exclusively Latin. Among modern European languages English, and, particularly, medical English, contains a great number of Latin and Latinized Greek words. It becomes evident when comparing medical glossaries of Latin and English. To prove this compare some medical terms in Latin and English. Latin clinical terms English equivalents Meaning lipuria lipuria lipid exretion by urine otogenus otogenic developing from the ear tachycardia tachycardia abnormally fast heart rate As we can see, in clinical terminology using Latin terms is particularly preferable, because one Latin word can change the whole group of English words, expressing some pathological phenomenon. The proximity of medical terms in Latin and English can be explained very simply: it is well known, that English medical terminology developed from Medieval Latin terminology, which had absorbed ancient Latin and Greek medical lexical units. Both Latin and ancient Greek are an inexhaustible source for a new term building, and this process keeps on going. Latin was the language of science up to the beginning of the 18th Century, so all medical texts were written in Latin. What‘s more, there exist lists of biological and medical terms, forming the so-called Nomenclatures, approved at the International Congresses of scientists–anatomical, histological, microbiological etc. Latin terms of those nomenclatures are used in education and scientific literature. That is why future doctors must study fundamentals of international medical terminology, based on Latin grammar and Latin and Greek word building elements (roots, stems and affixes). LATIN ALPHABET We aren‘t sure exactly how the ancient Romans pronounced the alphabet and words. We should