Lincoln University Digital Thesis Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: you will use the copy only for the purposes of research or private study you will recognise the author's right to be identified as the author of the thesis and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate you will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from the thesis. PLANNING URBAN NATURE Urban green space planning in post-1949 China: Beijing as a representative case study A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Landscape Architecture at Lincoln University by Chundi Chen Lincoln University 2013 Abstract of a thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Landscape Architecture. Abstract Planning urban Nature Urban green space planning in post-1949 China: Beijing as a representative case study by Chundi Chen Planning urban landscape is part of the process of adapting the physical environment to better fit with human needs and desires. In China, urban green space is the result of such human adaptation of natural environments. This research analyses the evolution of post-1949 Chinese urban green space development in terms of how urban nature has been conceptualised, valued, used and planned within the Chinese context, and the underlying driving forces for the evolution. Beijing provides an effective, historical and comparative demonstration of this evolution because it is China‟s capital and immersed in the very socio-cultural, political, economic, and environmental conditions that underpin new planning approaches. Urban green space development in China syntheses the influences from the Soviet, the West, particular Chinese traditional values and government aspirations. This has produced a distinctive Chinese pattern of adapting natural environments: retreating from reflecting political ideology and turning to pragmatism; valuing nature more for its own sake; establishing green space as a necessary and primary land use rather than serving as a standby for other land uses. During this evolution, various planning approaches to urban green space emerged on a “societal demand – supply of green space” basis - the quantitative approach, greenbelts and green wedges, the “filling in” approach, establishment of scenic spots and nature reserves, park hierarchy, the ecological approach, and the new Feng-shui. Overall, urban green space planning scope has extended fundamentally from a city-centred to a regional focus with a wider landscape ecological content. The prevailing subordination of urban green space planning to master planning in conventional planning frameworks has loosened. There is a growing trend towards urban green space planning as a prime determinant in urban planning process. Overall changes indicate a fundamental shift from an unconscious, reactive, narrowly focused, and in some ways contradictory view of urban green space, ii towards a more comprehensive, integrated and future-focused way of conceptualising and managing urban nature. With regard to essentially different planning philosophies and focuses, I categorised these various approaches into four types of planning strategies, namely haphazard provision, standards-oriented, usage-oriented and conservation-oriented strategy. They were compared for their strengths and weaknesses as planning tools when addressing various demands. The study lastly calls for a systemic and flexible planning strategy - multilevel and multifunctional, with an emphasis on ecological functions to deal with today‟s complex urban socio-environmental problems in China. Such a strategy would need to recognise the challenge for any one approach to address all the problems, instead adopting multiple complementary and synergistic approaches. Keywords: Beijing, environmental planning, functions and values of urban nature, landscape architecture, landscaping history and evolution, landscape ecological planning, urban green space planning approaches, urban landscape and environment, post-1949 China iii Acknowledgements Well, I do not quite know where to start. Studying overseas (in an English world) is a tough journey, much more challenging than I expected. My awkward language together with “culture shock” made me almost lose my confidence carrying on this research. I am therefore deeply grateful to my supervisors for their support - Dr. Prof. Jacky Bowring, Dr. Prof. Glenn Stewart and Dr. Prof. Maria Ignatieva (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences). They have generously shared their knowledge and provided guidance - discussing the research, commenting on and sharpening my thesis drafts. Their patience, tolerance, concern and encouragement enabled me to go through all the obstacles of a Chinese PhD life in New Zealand. I also have owed a great debt to Caitriona Cameron and Christine Maauga in the Student Learning Centre of Lincoln University. Especially Caitriona in my last desperate stages gave me a lot of constructive suggestions on my thesis writing skills! My special gratitude goes to Lincoln University for the scholarship granted to me. Through this opportunity, not only did I finish my PhD study, but also I have gained an objective view of western culture, especially New Zealand‟s unique culture. I am thankful to all the academic staff and friends, Xiaohua Li, Yao Sui, Rob Zonneveld, Silvia Tavares, Shannon Davis, in the School of Landscape Architecture, Environment, Society and Design Faculty for their support and friendship. I wish to acknowledge the Beijing Municipal Government and my former national research centre for providing me with original planning documents relating to the historical development of green space philosophy and policy in Beijing. A person today is the sum of his/her experiences. Without the previous accumulation and archiving of these key documents, I would not have been able to finish today‟s macro study of urban green space planning over 60 years in China. Last but not least, thanks to Dr. Colin Meurk of Landcare Research, New Zealand. He is an idealist who is full of passion for ecology, nature conservation and cultural preservation. We spent a great deal of time arguing with each other about urban planning polices, the differences between the West and the East, and discussing the civic consciousness in urban green space planning process, and so on. I shared a lot of common interest with him, being frank, being “loud” (it is a Chinese way, always speaking loudly). iv Finally I owe a lot to my father who did not understand why his daughter would run away from China to New Zealand but always gives me support in spirit. And also for my dear mother Ping Li, I know you are living peacefully in heaven and are blessing your daughter. I know that finishing a PhD study is just a start of a long journey as an academic. Even though it might not have been directly related to my thesis, through this study, I experienced different cultures, different ideas, and some interesting topics and thoughts. These interactions did inspire me a lot. I hope I have learnt from this and can continue to develop this broad thinking through my career. v Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. x List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research background and contributions ........................................................................... 1 1.2 Research problems and questions ..................................................................................... 2 1.3 Research goal and objectives ............................................................................................ 4 1.4 Research methodology ...................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Thesis outline .................................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2 Reviews of theories on urban green space............................................................ 8 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 The concept of urban green space ..................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 “Urban” is not just “urban” ................................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Definition of “urban green space” as a type of land use in urban planning system ...................................................................................................................