University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/35620 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. Game-based learning in formal educational contexts: how subject matter experts and game experts could collaborate to design and develop games by Tan, Wee Hoe A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education University of Warwick, Institute of Education November 2010 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xiii ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. xv DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ................................................................................. xvii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................. xviii DECLARATION ..................................................................................................... xix ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. xxi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 1.0 Overview ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Game-based learning in brief .............................................................................. 1 1.2 Formal education contexts and the modes of learning ..................................... 2 1.3 The use of electronic games in UK formal education ....................................... 3 1.4 Introducing the experts: subject matter experts and game experts ................ 6 1.5 In search of a key research question .................................................................. 8 1.6 The research aim and research outcomes .......................................................... 9 1.7 Thesis structure .................................................................................................. 10 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTS ASSOCIATED WITH GBL .................................. 12 2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 12 2.1 Definitions of ‘game’ .......................................................................................... 14 2.2 Elements of games .............................................................................................. 16 2.3 Other concepts related to games ....................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Play and game playing ................................................................................... 22 2.3.2 Gameplay and game design ........................................................................... 24 2.3.3 Simulations and simulation games ................................................................ 25 2.3.4 Fun and engagement ...................................................................................... 27 i 2.4 Electronic games (e-games) ............................................................................... 29 2.4.1 The essence of e-games ................................................................................. 30 2.4.2 Classification of e-games ............................................................................... 32 2.5 e-Games for education ....................................................................................... 35 2.6 GBL and learner-centred learning ................................................................... 37 2.7 Evaluation of games used in education ............................................................ 39 2.8 Summary ............................................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER 3: ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH GBL .......................................... 42 3.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 42 3.1 In search of a research position in academia and the game industry ........... 46 3.2 From e-learning to game-based e-learning and then GBL............................. 53 3.3 Issues of GBL practices ..................................................................................... 54 3.3.1 Generalisation of the findings about games ................................................... 55 3.3.2 The perceived potential of games .................................................................. 58 3.3.3 Game playing, violence and gender ............................................................... 60 3.3.4 The use of commercial games in formal education ....................................... 62 3.3.5 Developing and using educational or instructional games ............................ 64 3.4 Reflection in the search for research issues ..................................................... 70 3.5 Selecting a specific research topic ..................................................................... 71 3.6 Focus of this thesis .............................................................................................. 73 3.7 Summary ............................................................................................................. 74 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................. 75 4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 75 4.1 The nature of inquiry ......................................................................................... 77 4.1.1 The researcher's role in data analysis ............................................................. 79 4.1.2 Research diary................................................................................................ 80 4.2 The reflection–reflexion continuum ................................................................. 80 4.3 Mixed methods research design ........................................................................ 85 ii 4.3.1 Exploratory–confirmative–explanatory nature of studies .............................. 86 4.3.2 Choosing case study as the basis of the research approach ........................... 87 4.3.3 Individual participants as the units of analysis .............................................. 88 4.4 Ensuring reliability and validity ....................................................................... 89 4.4.1 Multi-method approach.................................................................................. 91 4.4.2 Semi-structured interview .............................................................................. 95 4.4.3 Focus group.................................................................................................... 96 4.4.4 Cross-sectional questionnaire survey............................................................. 97 4.5 Ethical issues ....................................................................................................... 97 4.6 Beyond mixed methods design: the Spiral Research Model .......................... 98 4.6.1 Evolutive: temporal focus shift ...................................................................... 98 4.6.2 Why spiral-segregated and how are studies linked to each other? ................ 99 4.6.2.1 Whorl 1: preparatory stage ................................................................... 102 4.6.2.2 Whorls 2–4: exploratory stage .............................................................. 102 4.6.2.3 Whorl 5: confirmative stage .................................................................. 104 4.6.2.4 Whorl 6: explanatory stage ................................................................... 104 4.6.2.5 The thesis ............................................................................................... 105 4.7 Using the Spiral Research Model as an alternative to triangulation .......... 105 4.8 Summary ........................................................................................................... 105 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS OF THE EXPLORATORY STUDIES ................ 107 5.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 107 5.1 Findings of Exploratory Study 1 (ES1) .......................................................... 107 5.1.1 The perceived potential of GBL .................................................................. 108 5.1.2 The self-justification of the perceived potential .......................................... 111 5.1.3 The self-evaluation of the justification ........................................................ 111 5.1.3.1 Objective and evidence-based White Hat: facts and figures ................. 111 5.1.3.2 Critical and judgmental Black Hat versus objective and positive Yellow Hat ..................................................................................................................... 112 5.1.3.3