Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380 Review Dragon’s blood: Botany, chemistry and therapeutic uses Deepika Gupta a, Bruce Bleakley b, Rajinder K. Gupta a,∗ a University School of Biotechnology, GGS Indraprastha University, K. Gate, Delhi 110006, India b Department of Biology & Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota 57007, USA Received 25 May 2007; received in revised form 10 October 2007; accepted 11 October 2007 Available online 22 October 2007 Abstract Dragon’s blood is one of the renowned traditional medicines used in different cultures of world. It has got several therapeutic uses: haemostatic, antidiarrhetic, antiulcer, antimicrobial, antiviral, wound healing, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, etc. Besides these medicinal applica- tions, it is used as a coloring material, varnish and also has got applications in folk magic. These red saps and resins are derived from a number of disparate taxa. Despite its wide uses, little research has been done to know about its true source, quality control and clinical applications. In this review, we have tried to overview different sources of Dragon’s blood, its source wise chemical constituents and therapeutic uses. As well as, a little attempt has been done to review the techniques used for its quality control and safety. © 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Dragon’s blood; Croton; Dracaena; Daemonorops; Pterocarpus; Therapeutic uses Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 362 1.1. Mythology ....................................................................................................... 362 1.2. Historical uses .................................................................................................... 362 1.3. Ethnomedicinal uses .............................................................................................. 363 2. Sources of Dragon’s blood ............................................................................................... 363 2.1. Croton spp. (Euphorbiaceae) ....................................................................................... 363 2.1.1. Chemical constituents ..................................................................................... 363 2.1.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses ........................................................................... 363 2.2. Daemonorops spp. ................................................................................................ 371 2.2.1. Chemical constituents ..................................................................................... 371 2.2.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses ........................................................................... 371 2.3. Dracaena spp. .................................................................................................... 371 2.3.1. Chemical constituents ..................................................................................... 371 2.3.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses ........................................................................... 371 2.4. Pterocarpus spp. .................................................................................................. 375 3. Quality control and safety ................................................................................................ 375 4. Conservation needs ...................................................................................................... 376 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 376 Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 376 References ............................................................................................................. 376 ∗ Corresponding author. Mobile: +91 9871263252; fax: +91 11 23865941/2. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.K. Gupta). 0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.10.018 362 D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380 1. Introduction as “Dragon Trees” (The Eleventh Labor of Hercules: The Apples of The Hesperides). Plants are used worldwide for the treatment of diseases and Dragon’s blood was also called “Indian cinnabar” by Greeks novel drugs continue to be developed through research from writers. The name “Dragon’s blood” dates back to the 1st cen- these plants. There are more than 20,000 species of higher plant, tury AD when a Greek sailor wrote, about an island called used in traditional medicines and are reservoirs of potential new Dioscorida where the trees yielded drops of cinnabar, in a ship- drugs. As the modern medicine and drug research advanced, ping manual “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea”. Plinius (1601) also chemically synthesized drugs replaced plants as the source of described that the resin got its name from an Indian legend based most medicinal agents in industrialized countries. Nevertheless on Brahma and Shiva. Emboden (1974) and Lyons (1974) had plants are an important source of lead compounds. However, in also summarized the history and mythology of Dragon’s blood. developing countries, the majority of the world’s population can- According to Lyons, the struggle between a dragon and an ele- not afford pharmaceutical drugs and use their own plant based phant that, at its climax, led to the mixing of the blood of the indigenous medicines. two creatures resulted in a magical substance, “Dragon’s blood” Dragon’s blood is a deep red resin, which has been used imbued with medicinal properties. as a famous traditional medicine since ancient times by many cultures. The term “Dragon’s blood” refers to reddish resinous 1.2. Historical uses products, usually encountered as granules, powder, lumps or sticks used in folk medicine. Dragon’s blood has been used for The crimson red resin was highly prized in the ancient world. diverse medical and artistic applications. It has astringent effect Dragon’s blood (Dracaena cinnabari) was used as a dye and and has been used as a hemostatic and antidiarrhetic drug. medicine in the Mediterranean basin. Miller and Morris (1988) The origin of Dragon’s blood is believed to be from Indian mention use of Dracaena resin as a coloring matter for varnishes, Ocean island of Socotra, now part of Yemen (Angiosperm tinctures, toothpastes, plaster, and for dying horn to make it look Phylogeny Group, 1974). However, there exists a great degree like tortoiseshell. Mabberley (1998) also notes that resinous sap of confusion regarding the source and identity of Dragon’s produced via incisions in the bark or stem of the Dracaena blood. Several alternative sources of Dragon’s blood from cinnabari was used by the Ancients to stain horn to resem- Canary Islands, Madeira, and South East Asia and also from ble tortoiseshell. People in Socotra used resin from Dracaena East and West Africa have been identified (Alexander and cinnabari for dying wool, glue pottery, breath freshener, to dec- Miller, 1995). Dragon’s blood was a name applied to many orate pottery and houses and even as lipstick (Alexander and red resins described in the medical literature, e.g. East Indian Miller, 1996). Due to the belief that it is the blood of the mythi- Dragon’s blood (from the fruit of Daemonorops draco (Willd.) cal animal, the dragon, it is also used in alchemy and for ritual Blume), Socotran or Zanzibar Dragon’s blood (exudates of magic. Dracaena cinnabari Balf. f.), Canary Dragon’s blood (exudates Dragon’s blood from both Dracaena and Daemonorops were formed from incisions of the trunk of Dracaena draco (L.) L.), also used for ceremonies in India. Sometimes Dracaena resin, West Indian Dragon’s blood (exudates of Pterocarpus draco but more often Daemonorops resin, was used in China as red L.), Mexican Dragon’s blood (resin of Croton lechleri Mull.¨ varnish for wooden furniture. These resins were used to color Arg.) and the Venezuelan Dragon’s blood (resin of Croton the surface of writing paper for banners and posters, used espe- gossypifolium Vahl) (Sollman, 1920). cially for weddings and for Chinese New Year. These red resins Mabberley (1998) suggests that Dragon’s blood was pro- were also used as pigment in paint, enhancing the color of duced originally from Dracaena cinnabari, later from Dracaena precious stones and staining glass, marble and the wood for draco and more recently from Daemonorops spp. Zheng et Italian violins. Fulling (1953) reported that Daemonorops resin al. (2004a,b,c) confirms this view and suggests Pterocar- was used in the preparation of drawings. Powdered forms of pus spp., Daemonorops draco and Croton spp. as substitutes Daemonorops resin were used extensively as an acid resist by for Dracaena spp. Thus, the term “Dragon’s blood” in gen- photoengravers during the 1930s (Pankow, 1988). In modern eral is used for all kinds of resins and saps obtained from times Daemonorops resin is still used as a varnish for violins, four distinct plant genera; Croton (Euphorbiaceae), Dracaena in photoengraving, as an incense resin, and as body oil. Dae- (Dracaenaceae), Daemonorops (Palmaceae), and Pterocarpus monorops resin is also added to red ink to make “Dragon’s (Fabaceae). Blood Ink,” which is used to inscribe magical seals and talismans. 1.1. Mythology Spanish naturalist and explorer