Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy “Snow, Taylor, and a distinguished group of scholars have produced the definitive sourcebook on one of the most important subjects of our time. This collection offers a highly readable and comprehensive look at how the U.S. has veered off course in the battle for the hearts and minds of much of the world. This is a must-read for students and scholars, and should be placed in the hands of the policymakers who inherit the challenge of restoring the public image and credibility of this wayward superpower.” —Lance Bennett, Professor of Political Science & Ruddick C. Lawrence Professor of Communi- cation, Director, Center for Communication and Civic Engagement, University of Washington “Since 9/11, public diplomacy has emerged as a critical, but little understood, component of foreign policy. This Handbook explains what it is, what it isn’t, who does it well, and who doesn’t. In short, it is essential to understanding how countries present themselves to the world.” —Ambassador Cunthia P. Schneider, PhH, Distinguished Fellow in the Practice of Diplomacy, Georgetwon University, Senior Non Resident Fellow, Brookings Institution “Snow and Taylor’s Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy offers valuable and timely advice about China as it struggles to tell its story of Tibet and the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The editors take a global perspective to address the public diplomacy issue in a well-admired effort to build a global dialogue between the East and the West.” —Li Xiguang, Dean, International Center for Communication Studies, Tsinghua University Vice-Chairman, Journalism Education Committee of Chinese Ministry of Education The Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy provides a comprehensive overview of public diplo- macy, national image, and perception management, from the efforts to foster pro-West sentiment during the Cold War to the post-9/11 campaign to “win the hearts and minds” of the Muslim world. Editors Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor present materials on public diplomacy trends in public opinion and cultural diplomacy as well as topical policy issues. The latest research in public relations, credibility, soft power, advertising, and marketing is included and institutional processes and players are identified and analyzed. While the field is dominated by American and British research and developments, the book also includes international research and comparative per- spectives from other countries. Nancy Snow is Associate Professor of Public Diplomacy in the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University. She is Senior Research Fellow in the USC Center on Public Diplomacy. Philip M. Taylor is Professor of International Communications at the University of Leeds and acknowledged as one of the foremost authorities in propaganda history and public diplomacy. Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy Edited by Nancy Snow Syracuse University Philip M. Taylor University of Leeds Published in association with the USC Center on Public Diplomacy at the Annenberg School based at the University of Southern California First published 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2009 Taylor & Francis All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Routledge handbook of public diplomacy / edited by Nancy Snow, Philip M. Taylor. p. cm. “Published in association with the USC Center on Public Diplomacy at the Annenberg School based at the University of Southern California.” Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. International relations – Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Diplomacy – Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Snow, Nancy. II. Taylor, Philip M. III. Annenberg School for Communication (University of Southern California). Center on Public Diplomacy. JZ1305.R685 2008 327.2—dc22 2008012605 ISBN 0-203-89152-X Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–95301–4 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–95302–2 (pbk) ISBN10: 0–203–89152–X (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–95301–6 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–95302–3 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–89152–0 (ebk) Contents Preface and Introduction ix Notes on Contributors xiii Introduction 1 Rethinking Public Diplomacy 3 Nancy Snow 2 Public Diplomacy and Strategic Communications 12 Philip M. Taylor Part 1: The Context of Public Diplomacy 3 Public Diplomacy before Gullion: The Evolution of a Phrase 19 Nicholas J. Cull 4 Public Diplomacy as Loss of World Authority 24 Michael Vlahos 5 Public Opinion and Power 39 Ali S. Wyne 6 Exchange Programs and Public Diplomacy 50 Giles Scott-Smith 7 Arts Diplomacy: The Neglected Aspect of Cultural Diplomacy 57 John Brown v CONTENTS Part 2: Public Diplomacy Applications 8 Operationalizing Public Diplomacy 63 Matthew C. Armstrong 9 Between “Take-offs” and “Crash Landings”: Situational Aspects of Public Diplomacy 72 John Robert Kelley 10 Mapping out a Spectrum of Public Diplomacy Initiatives: Information and Relational Communication Frameworks 86 R.S. Zaharna 11 The Nexus of U.S. Public Diplomacy and Citizen Diplomacy 101 Sherry Mueller Part 3: Public Diplomacy Management: Image, Influence, and Persuasion 12 Public Diplomacy in International Conflicts: A Social Influence Analysis 111 Anthony Pratkanis 13 Credibility and Public Diplomacy 154 Robert H. Gass and John S. Seiter 14 The Culture Variable in the Influence Equation 166 Kelton Rhoads 15 Military Psychological Operations as Public Diplomacy 187 Mark Kilbane Part 4: State and Non-State Actors in Public Diplomacy 16 American Business and Its Role in Public Diplomacy 195 Keith Reinhard 17 The Public Diplomat: A First Person Account 201 Peter Kovach 18 The Case for Localized Public Diplomacy 212 William P. Kiehl 19 The Distinction Between Public Affairs and Public Diplomacy 225 Ken S. Heller and Liza M. Persson 20 Valuing Exchange of Persons in Public Diplomacy 233 Nancy Snow vi CONTENTS Part 5: Global Approaches to Public Diplomacy 21 Four Seasons in One Day: The Crowded House of Public Diplomacy in the UK 251 Ali Fisher 22 German Public Diplomacy: The Dialogue of Cultures 262 Oliver Zöllner 23 Origin and Development of Japan’s Public Diplomacy 270 Tadashi Ogawa 24 China Talks Back: Public Diplomacy and Soft Power for the Chinese Century 282 Gary D. Rawnsley 25 Central and Eastern European Public Diplomacy: A Transitional Perspective on National Reputation Management 292 György Szondi 26 Australian Public Diplomacy 314 Naren Chitty Part 6: Advancing Public Diplomacy Studies 27 How Globalization Became U.S. Public Diplomacy at the End of the Cold War 325 Joseph Duffey 28 Ethics and Social Issues in Public Diplomacy 334 Richard Nelson and Foad Izadi 29 Noopolitik: A New Paradigm for Public Diplomacy 352 David Ronfeldt and John Arquilla Select Bibliography 367 Index 373 vii Preface and Introduction Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor Public diplomacy is one of the most salient political communication issues in the 21st century. Its revival arises within the context of the post-September 11, 2001 declaration of war on terrorism largely aimed at radical, anti-American/West Islamic militants and manifested via military inter- ventions in the Muslim majority countries of Afghanistan and Iraq. The United States and the United Kingdom are the two leading nations in the global effort to “win hearts and minds” of indigenous citizen populations in the Greater Middle East. Whereas public diplomacy in the 20th century emerged from two world wars and a balance of power Cold War framework between the communist East and capitalist West, the 21st century trend is a post 9/11 environ- ment dominated by fractal globalization, preemptive military invasion, information and com- munication technologies that shrink time and distance, and the rise of global non-state actors (terror networks, bloggers) that challenge state-driven policy and discourse on the subject. The new social groups involved in public diplomacy’s articulation and formulation have made the topic of public diplomacy (and its negative, pejorative corollary: propaganda) recognizable and meaningful to a varied and vast arena of publics, even as traditional elites in government and private think tanks continue to dominate media coverage with their reports, hearings, and initiatives to overcome negative (i.e., “Why do they hate us?”) or indifferent attitudes. In the United States alone, since 9/11 prominent Washington, D.C.-based organizations inside and outside government have published scores of reports and white papers, formed crisis communi- cation task forces, or promoted new public diplomacy initiatives. However, with the exception of expanded international broadcasting and mass media projects targeting the Middle East and some expansion of exchanges, all have been advisory and shared a common cry for more public diplomacy efforts without laying out a conceptual framework. Within this highly politicized arena of public diplomacy and foreign policy formulation, empirical data and reasoned analysis from academic schools of thought are often overlooked in favor of perfunctory opinion editorials and discourse from a narrowcast of retired generals and diplomats. The Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy was first conceived in 2004 as a project to provide a comprehensive overview of public diplomacy and national image and perception management, enabling an understanding of its 21st-century revival to informed members of the public as well as academics and traditional practitioners.