Cycles of opportunity? The significance of cycling cultures on cycling practice: The case of Newcastle upon Tyne 1982 - 2017 Rorie Arran Parsons A thesis submitted to Newcastle University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape October 2019 Abstract Mainstream contemporary travel in the UK is dominated by a system of automobility with sustainable forms of mobility such as cycling largely marginalized. In response to a widely perceived imperative to grow cycle use due to its health and ecological benefits in particular, transport policy and planning has focused on individual choice, thus relying upon psychological models of behaviour change. This thesis adopts a more sociological view of understanding behavioural change. It mobilises practice theory to explore how the ‘social sites’ of cycling contribute to cycling practices. Utilising a case study methodology, the activities of three advocate groups of cycling (‘social sites’) in Newcastle upon Tyne, England are critically examined: Tynebikes, The Cycle Hub and Newcastle Cycling Campaign. The research uses qualitative data from ethnographic observations, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. It is evident that whilst all social sites advocate for cycling, they differentiate in ways that reflect practice theory’s elements of meanings, materials and competences. As a result, it identifies that social sites contribute to various local trajectories of cycling practice. The emergence of new elements introduced by social sites refers to cycling practices being born through a process of re-crafting. Particularly in regards to campaigning practices, the introduction of these elements also highlight the decline of other particular performances of cycling. In popularising existing elements, current and locally situated cycling performances persist, largely through the development of communities of practice. While the innovative combination of existing meanings, competences and materials in new ways relates to attempts to grow cycle usage. This thesis therefore highlights the significance social sites play in affecting future trajectories of cycling. Cycling social sites both widen and restrict cycling practices through the performances they intentionally and unintentionally reproduce and circulate, and thus contribute to the birth, growth, maintenance and potential decline of cycling practices. This finding is important for advocates and policy-makers looking to promote cycle usage. i [This page is intentionally left blank] ii Acknowledgements First and foremost thanks must go to the Economic and Social Research Council for the funding that has enabled me to complete both my masters and doctoral research at Newcastle University (1344934). I must thank all the research participants who took the time to share their thoughts, views and experiences on the research topic. I am very grateful of former members of Tynebikes providing me with valuable archival material that has contributed significantly to this thesis. Thank you to Newcastle Cycling Campaign for allowing me to attend meetings, social gatherings and informal chats. And thank you to The Cycle Hub for letting me carry out ethnographic observations at the café and engage with the sessions held there. Finally, thank you to the wider cycling community in Newcastle, to all those other meetings, gatherings and events of which I was able to be a part of, these were truly invaluable moments. The thesis itself would not have been possible without the time and effort of my supervisory team: Professor Geoff Vigar and Dr Andrew Law. Their help, advice and guidance throughout the research process has enabled me to create something that I thought would not be possible. I am particularly appreciative of their support when times were difficult and helping me to overcome numerous hurdles in my research and the pressures that came with this. The ability to share their own experiences provided a calming reassurance and positive impetus to continue with the work. Again, I must thank both the Economic and Social Research Council and Newcastle University for providing me with the opportunity to study abroad with the Beyond Behaviour Change research programme at Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University. This provided a catalyst for my research in the understanding and use of practice theory. Thank you Dr Cecily Maller, Dr Crystal Legacy, and Associate Professor Yolande Strengers for supporting me whilst there and enabling me to think more critically when using practice theory. I’d like to thank the wider School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape and the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at Newcastle University for the countless lectures and seminars, which assisted my development throughout my postgraduate iii studies. To Marian Kyte who was always there to solve any issues or queries. To Armelle Tardiveau and Daniel Mallo for their engagement and discussions on the theoretical framework. Being able to work on another research project during this time was a joy. Thanks also to Brian Peel and Dhruv Sookhoo for those general chats on our work. Those moments provided invaluable context and reassurance, helping me on a week-to-week basis. I am also grateful for the support network outside of my studies. To those at Heaton Hawks Junior Football Club and in particular Micky, Hassan and all the boys I have coached. Those four years of coaching were a pleasure; I wish you all and the club the very best in the future. And to my friends, Sam and Laura for providing a welcoming home from home for the past five years. And finally I would like to thank those closest to me. To my family, my father and stepmother. Thank you for always supporting me and always taking an interest in the work I do. To Steve and Mandy for their support and always making me feel welcome in their home. And finally, to Emma, without you the whole idea of a PhD would not have been possible. You have pushed me to become the best form of myself. Thank you for the love, encouragement and support you have given me. With this chapter closed, I look forward to writing the next one with you. This is for you. iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... v List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ............................................................................................................. xiii 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Setting the Scene ................................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 System of Automobility ............................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Sustainable Transport Cities......................................................................... 5 1.1.3 Understanding Travel Behaviour ................................................................. 7 1.2 Research Aims, Objectives and Questions ........................................................ 9 1.3 Structure of the Thesis ..................................................................................... 10 2 Theoretical Literature Review – Practice Theory .................................................. 17 2.1 Situating the Social as Practice ........................................................................ 18 2.1.1 Defining Practice Theory ........................................................................... 18 2.1.2 Practice-as-Entity and Practice-as-Performance ........................................ 28 2.1.3 Community of Practice............................................................................... 32 2.1.4 System of Practice ...................................................................................... 35 2.2 Intervening in Human Activity ........................................................................ 38 2.2.1 Reconceptualising Behaviour Change ....................................................... 38 2.3 Capturing Trajectories of Practices .................................................................. 42 2.3.1 Relationships between Practices ................................................................ 42 2.3.2 The Life of Elements .................................................................................. 46 2.3.3 The Influence of Practitioners .................................................................... 50 2.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 51 v 3 Literature Review – Cycling Performances and Practices .................................... 55 3.1 Performances of Cycling .................................................................................. 56 3.1.1 Perceptions of Safety and the Fear of Cycling ........................................... 59 3.1.2 The Stigma of Cycling ............................................................................... 64 3.2 Transport