The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University DEPARTMENT OF HISTORICAL STUDIES CONTESTATIONS OVER CAPRIVI IDENTITIES:Town FROM PRE- COLONIAL TIMES TO THE PRESENT. Thesis presented in fulfillmentCape of the requirements for the of Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY University By Bennett Kangumu Kangumu Supervisor: Prof. Chris Saunders August 2008 PLAGIARISM DECLARATION 1. I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another’s work and pretend that it is one’s own. 2. Each contribution to, and quotation in, this thesis from the work(s) of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. 3. This thesis is my own work. Town Cape 4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work. of Signature ______________________________University i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Once again, a generous financial grant from the Carl Schlettwein Foundation of Basel, Switzerland, made the writing of this thesis possible. I am highly indebted to the Foundation for this and previous awards over the years at a time when scholarships to study history seem to dry up. My supervisor, Prof. Chris Saunders, was unrelenting in his encouragement for the completion of the thesis and his belief in the important contribution this would make to Namibian historiography. Many thanks are due to him for his attentiveness and undivided support during the process of writing this thesis. Many thanks to my friend Mike Nefale and his family, forTown putting me up on two occasions when I visited Johannesburg to utilize the University of Witwatersrand libraries and archives. Cape Thanks are due too, to all the staff of all archives I worked in for assisting me to locate material relevant to my topic – the Nationalof Archives of Namibia, National Archives of Zambia, the Holy Family Mission at Katima Mulilo, and the Archives of the Archdiocese of Windhoek, and to Dag Henrichsen of Basler Afrika Bibliographien who kindly put at my disposal a transcript of notes by Israel Goldblatt. In these notes Goldblatt recorded his encounters with Brendan Kangongolo Simbwaye and these proved very useful. My colleagues JeremyUniversity Silvester and Werner Hillebrecht, are thanked for bringing photocopies of material on the Caprivi from the National Archives of Botswana, and pointing out other useful sources on my topic held in that archive. Special thanks also to Ferozah Jacobs, Staff Housing Officer at UCT Forest Hill Residence, for ensuring, even when approached on short notice, that I had a flat to stay in on many visits I made to Cape Town. ii Writing this thesis would have been a lonely affair without the wonderful support I received from family and friends. Your emails and telephone calls made a huge difference. My two uncles, Vincent Mafwila and Clement Mafwila, were almost a core study group for we discussed many issues especially related to the liberation war: many thanks to you both for allowing me to test some of my theories on you. My kid sister Nzila Muhau deserves special thanks for the many coffees she made for me when I seemed stressed. Last but not least my heartfelt thanks go to my daughter Mpambo and my son Nfwambi for their support and understanding especially for not complaining that I neglected you for being away from home several times during the process of gathering data and writing this thesis. Town Cape of University iii ABSTRACT Contestations over Caprivi identities: From pre-colonial times to the present This study investigated the hypothesis that Caprivi identities exist; and that they have always been contested. These identities defined as a sense of not belonging to greater South West Africa exist in two forms: i) as a spatial or geographical entity usually divided into East and West in history for administrative purposes; and, ii) as a people, such as Subia, Mafwe, Mayeyi, Mbukushu, Barakwena, Totela, Mbalangwe, and Lozi, collectively referred to as ‘Caprivians’. Through utilizing primary sources such as oral interviews and archival material as well as secondary sources, the study endeavored to establish how Caprivi identities were constructed; what the natureTown of its contestations are; and how ‘Caprivians’ responded to its construction. It was established that Caprivi identities were the result of administrative neglect in state formation that constructed isolation on the basisCape of difference – that ‘Caprivians’ are different from other groups in South Westof Africa, and that Caprivi was geographically remote from Windhoek and hence difficult to administer as part of South West Africa. Resultantly, only a primitive form of indirect rule existed in the area for most part of its colonial history resulting in constant change of colonial masters. Though it was pushed more to neighboring territories administratively, it was not made an integral part of such territories but made to stand separate as a geographical entity. Even the provision of education and healthUniversity services was left in the hands of missionaries of the Seventh Day Adventists and the Catholic Capuchin Order. With the implementation of the Odendaal recommendations, an East Caprivi Bantustan was established that gave ‘Caprivians’ a legislative council, and a government with symbols of state such as a flag, coat of arms, anthem and constitution. The study argued that this marks the fruition of Caprivi identity and the concept ‘Caprivian’ was coined and entered official use. Because of its strategic location, Caprivi became a contested terrain for Angolan migrant labour extraction and military confrontation between apartheid South Africa and iv liberation movements. During the pre-colonial period, contestation for Caprivi identity was in the form of competition for resources and was characterized by conquest, resistance, plunder, betrayal and rivalry. The inhabitants of Caprivi responded to Caprivi identity in two ways. During the colonial period this was in the form of the rise of nationalism when the Caprivi African National Union was formed to fight for independence. The study concluded that the merger between Caprivi African National Union and South West Africa Peoples Organization to liberate Namibia was a rejection of isolation and separatism expressed through Caprivi identities. The second response is calls for secession from Namibia by certain ‘Caprivians’ in the present. The study concluded that secession is a product of the South African construction of Caprivi identities that emphasized localized notions of identity formation. Town Bennett Kangumu Kangumu 04 August 2008 Cape of University v ABBREVIATIONS AACRLS Archives of Anti-Colonial Resistance and Liberation Struggle AG Administrator General ANC African National Congress ASA African Studies Association BAB Basler Afrika Bibliographien BIC Bantu Investment Corporation BNA Botswana National Archives BPG Bantu Police Guard Town CANU Caprivi African National Union CAP Caprivi Alliance Party Cape CLA Caprivi Liberation Armyof DTA Democratic Turnhalle Alliance ECZ Eastern Caprivi Zipfel FNLA Front for the National Liberation of Angola GSWA German South West Africa MPLA UniversityMovement for the Popular Liberation of Angola NAP Pretoria National Archives NAZ National Archives of Zambia NEPRU Namibia Economic Policy Research Unit NLO Northern Labour Organization OAU Organization of African Unity vi PLAN People’s Liberation Army of Namibia SAAF South African Air Force SADC Southern Africa Development Community SADF South African Defense Force SWATF South West Africa Territorial Force SDA Seventh Day Adventist SSRHMP SADC Secretariat Research Hashim Mbita Project SWA South West Africa SWAA South West Africa Administration SWALA South West Africa Liberation Army Town SWAPO South West Africa People’s Organization UCT University of Cape Town Cape UDP United Democratic Partyof UN United Nations UNIP United Independence Party WHAM Winning Hearts and Minds WNLA Witwatersrand Native Labour Association University vii TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ II ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ IV ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................... VI SECTION ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 13 CONSTRUCTING CAPRIVI IDENTITIES ........................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 14 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 14 POPULATION…………………………………………………………….……………………………….………15