Technologies of Indigeneity: Indigenous Collective Identity Narratives in Online Communities Liezel C. Longboan School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies Cardiff University This thesis is submitted to Cardiff University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2013 DECLARATION This work has not been previously accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed: Liezel C. Longboan (candidate) Date: 28 June 2013 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed: Liezel C. Longboan (candidate) Date: 28 June 2013 STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. Signed: Liezel C. Longboan (candidate) Date: 28 June 2013 STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed: Liezel C. Longboan (candidate) Date: 28 June 2013 ii Dedication For my parents, Balbina and Feliberto Longboan, my first and best teachers. iii Acknowledgements I reach this point of my academic journey with profound gratitude to my family, friends, and all who made the writing of this thesis possible. I thank Harry Basingat and John Dyte and all the members of Bibaknets who have permitted me to access the forum for this study. Sincere thanks goes to Leonor Mondata, Lulu Fangasan, Harry Paltongan, and Alfred Labfayong, who in one way or the other, have given invaluable assistance during the research and writing up period. My supervisors, Karin Wahl-Jorgensen and Kerry Moore, have provided immense support and guidance throughout the research process. I would not have completed this thesis without their incisive comments. They have strengthened the ideas of Terry Threadgold whose encouragement saw me through the beginning of this project. I am also lucky to have the support of a small community of Filipino scholars at the Seafarers’ International Research Centre (SIRC). Roderick Galam has kindly proofread and given precious feedback on my drafts. Jabeth Dacanay and Jean Pia have been a constant source of support as well as Don Prisno, Nelson Turgo, Iris Acejo, Moss Llangco, Sanley Abila, and Ralph Buiser. My viva examiners, Mirca Madianou and Paul Bowman, deserve my sincerest gratitude. They have taken time to understand and engage with my study, giving immeasureable insights on how I could further strengthen and develop my original contributions within the wider literature. I am indebted to the Ford Foundation International Fellowships Program and the Philippine Social Science Council which partly funded my research. The Cordillera Studies Center provided access to their collection and resources while I was there as a fellow. Discussions with Raul Pertierra, June Prill-Brett, Delfin Tolentino, and Jimmy Fong have helped shape my arguments. To the UK IFP Fellows, especially to Gaudencio Natividad, Joan Gervacio, Raissa Trinidad, Shangrila Fuentes, and Gus Gatmaytan – daghang salamat! To Jinky Montanez and Jennifer Denton-Smith, thank you for being my foster sisters in the UK. Embarking on this project would not have been possible without the love and support of my family. To my parents-in-law, Richard and Lynnette Kretchmer, thank you for your encouragement and love, especially when I needed them most. iv To my foster parents, Mr. Tatsuo and and Mrs. Reiko Nishimura, my utmost gratitude for seeing me through all these years. To my parents, Balbina and Feliberto, this work is dedicated to you. To my siblings and their spouses, Noel and Remy, Jackie and Arnel, Karen, Carol and Ken – I am forever grateful for the countless ways you have encouraged and supported me. To Justin, Juris, Lexie, Clarisse, Chloe, Paul, Nina, Aaron, and Chiara, thank you for just being there. To my husband, Harry Kretchmer, I cannot thank you enough for being my gulay. This thesis has bonded us in ways I have never imagined - it is yours as much as mine. To the Great Spirits who have made this work possible, salasalamat. v Abstract This thesis examines contemporary constructions of collective indigenous identity. It specifically focuses on the offline and online interactions among the members of Bibaknets, an online community for indigenous peoples from the highlands of the Cordillera Region, Philippines. The study explores the relational and positional nature of collective indigenous identity as Cordillerans attempt to resolve the tensions between their experiences of marginalisation and their goal for empowerment. Drawing upon Michel Foucault’s concept of governmentality, the thesis critically analyses the processes of Cordilleran collective identity construction which are inscribed in power relations not only between highlanders and the dominant population but also among themselves. On the one hand, members are motivated to join and participate in Bibaknets discussions as a forum for Cordillerans. On the other hand, such participation is constrained by some members who direct the discussions and consequently define the membership of the forum. Borrowing from Cruikshank’s ‘technologies of citizenship’ (1999), the study argues that Cordillerans’ efforts to construct their indigenous identity could be described as ‘technologies of indigeneity’. In their pursuit for autonomy and subjectivity, Cordillerans govern their own conduct through their online identity narratives. In doing so, members adopt ‘internal and voluntary relations of rule’ (Cruikshank 1999: 4) in their efforts to discuss, clarify and protect their highland identity which both enable and constrain the emergence of alternative narratives on Bibaknets. The construction of their identity narratives are not confined to their marginalisation by colonisers and the nation-state but also by the unequal power relations among themselves. The positional and strategic nature of Cordillera identity construction is made visible by the self-authored narratives of Bibaknets members. As an online community, Bibaknets is a translocal (Appadurai 1995) site of mediation that enable members to re-interpret and reconstruct individually and collectively socio-political spaces and realities. vi Table of Contents Declaration ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Abstract vi Table of Contents vii List of Tables and Figures x Prologue 1 Chapter 1 Introduction: Indigenous Identity 4 and Technology Chapter 2 Technologies of Indigeneity: Indigenous Peoples, Power and Identities 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Governmentality 13 2.2.1 Technologies of Power 14 2.2.2 Indigenous Peoples: A Product of Categorisation 15 2.2.3 Ethnicity and Race 16 2.2.4 Indigenous Peoples and Self-Determination 17 2.3 Technologies of the Self: Governing the Self 19 2.3.1 Marginalisation and Indigenous Identity 22 Construction 2.3.2 Technologies of Indigeneity 23 2.4 Technologies of Indigeneity: Constructing 27 Indigenous Identity 2.4.1 Processes of Indigenous Identification 29 2.5 The Internet: A New Site for Constructing 30 Indigenous Identity 2.6 Narrating Collective Indigenous Identity Online 32 2.6.1 Narratives and Autoethnographic Texts 33 2.6.2 Subjectivity and Subjection 34 2.7 Community, Offline and Online 36 2.7.1 Advocacy and Resistance 39 2.7.2 Inreach and Outreach Orientations 41 2.7.3 Internal Debates and Negotiations 42 2.8 Discussion and Conclusion 44 Chapter 3 Power in Technologies: Exploring Collective Online Narratives of Indigenous Peoples 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Autoethnographic Narratives 48 3.2.1 Autoethnography as an Ethical Indigenous Research 49 Approach 3.2.2 Online Autoethnography 51 3.3 A Dialogic Position 54 3.3.1 Insider/Outsider Relations 55 3.4 Research Questions 58 vii 3.5 Bibaknets as a Field Site 59 3.5.1 Online Participant Observation 62 3.5.2 Interviews and Attendance at Meetings 65 3.5.3 Non-Random Survey 67 3.5.4 Analysing Narratives 68 3.6 Ethical Considerations 70 3.6.1 Power Relations 70 3.6.2 Offline-Online Dynamics 72 3.6.3 Anonymity and Confidentiality 72 3.7 Discussion and Conclusion 74 Chapter 4 Constructing Indigeneity in the Philippines 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Creating Philippine Indigenous Peoples 77 4.3 Negotiating Indigeneity in the Cordillera Region 80 4.4 The Cordillera Region and Its Peoples 81 4.4.1 Creating Mountain Province for Mountaineers 83 4.5 Who is an Igorot? 86 4.5.1 Igorots are Not Filipinos 87 4.5.2 Martial Law and the Rise of Igorotism 88 4.6 Collective Consciousness and Collective Category 90 4.7 Discussion and Conclusion 93 Chapter 5 From Igorots to E-gorots 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Bibaknets, the Greatest Dap-ay in the Sky 96 5.2.1 Dap-ay in the Kankanaey Tradition 97 5.2.2 Redefining Dap-ay 99 5.3 50 Years Old and Over as Bibaknets Elders 101 5.4 Becoming a Bibaknetter 104 5.4.1 Nelson – In Search of a Cordilleran Community 105 5.4.1.1 Authenticating Indigeneity 106 5.4.1.2 Bibaknets Community Practices 109 5.4.1.3 Leaving Bibaknets 111 5.4.2 Mina – Feeling Alone and Lonely in America 113 5.4.2.1 Leaving Bibaknets 116 5.5 The Lurkers 117 5.6 Discussion and Conclusion 118 Chapter 6 In Search of Our Roots 6.1 Introduction 122 6.2 Clarifying Collective Identity Categories 123 6.3 Challenging Imposed Categories 124 6.3.1 From Begging to Difference 126 6.3.2 Using Our Own Names 130 6.3.3 BIBAK or MIBAKA? 135 6.4 Understanding One’s Ethnic Category 138 6.4.1 Applai