University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Master of Environmental Studies Capstone Department of Earth and Environmental Projects Science January 2007 Ngorongoro Conservation Area: Spring of Life Lori A. Swanson University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/mes_capstones Swanson, Lori A., "Ngorongoro Conservation Area: Spring of Life" (2007). Master of Environmental Studies Capstone Projects. 10. https://repository.upenn.edu/mes_capstones/10 Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Environmental Studies. This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/mes_capstones/10 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Ngorongoro Conservation Area: Spring of Life Abstract This paper will provide management suggestions for the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) General Management Plan of 1996, with much focus on the valuable resources shared by the Maasai and wildlife. It will also summarize the creation of the Ngorongoro Crater, provide a history of human existence in Ngorongoro, describe the wildlife of Ngorongoro, and discuss current management of the Conservation Area. But most importantly, it will provide options for a better future for wildlife and for the Maasai people. Comments Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Environmental Studies. This thesis or dissertation is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/mes_capstones/10 Table of Contents I. Executive Summary……………………………………………………………… 2 II. Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 4 III. Making of a Caldera………………………………………………………........ 6 IV. The Wetlands of Ngorongoro…………………………………………….......... 8 Springs and Streams Marshes and Swamps Lake Makat/Magadi V. Ngorongoro Vegetation……………………………………………………... …. 9 Wildlife Preferences pH and Salinity Variables Short and Long Grass Plains Highlands Forest Swamp and Marsh Vegetation VI. Human History in Ngorongoro………………………………………………… 12 The Datoga and the Maasai The Europeans The Making of a Conservation Area VII. The Wildlife of Ngorongoro……………………………………………........... 16 Species and Population Trends The Great Migration VIII. Wildlife-Related Tourism……………………………………………………. 21 National and International Importance Current Status IX. The Maasai of Ngorongoro……………………………………………………. 25 Culture Current Health Status Population Growth Pastoralists or Cultivators? X. Tourism and the Ngorongoro Maasai…………………………………………... 36 Cultural Bomas Walking Tours Employment XI. The Maasai Livestock of Ngorongoro………………………………………… 41 Population Trends Health and Disease Livestock Development in the NCA XII. Conflicts………………………………………………………………………. 52 Water Rights Pasture Access Disease Transmission XIII. The NCA General Management Plan and Recommendations………………. 64 XIV. Conclusions………………………………………………………………….. 92 XV. References…………………………………………………………………….. 95 Lori Swanson 2 Executive Summary The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) was established in 1959 after being excised from the newly created Serengeti National Park (SNP). The NCA was designated as a “conservation area” under the premise that it would serve as a multiple- land use area for both the resident and migratory wildlife and the native residents who had been evicted from the surrounding preserved areas of the SNP and the Maasai Mara National Reserve. In order to maintain this balance between wildlife, man, and the accompanying livestock, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA) adopted a General Management Plan (GMP) in 1996 which set forth goals and expectations for projects and developments to be carried out in the subsequent ten years. Upon the ten year anniversary of this GMP, numerous promises have remained unfulfilled and alterations must be made to better accommodate the residents, both human and animal. Conservation of the NCA’s wildlife, which has for years been the primary concern of the NCAA, will only enjoy further success and improvement if the native Maasai residents are involved in tourism and research efforts. These people who are most affected by the management choices made for the NCA must be encouraged to actively participate in the NCAA’s decision-making authority to ensure that pastoral concerns are also being heard when management options are being considered. Involvement in these activities will generate much needed revenue with respect to tourism endeavors and a feeling of empowerment in decision-making opportunities. The current situation of the NCA Maasai is bleak, mostly stemming from the fact that their livestock populations, upon which they depend for subsistence, are suffering due to disease outbreaks and reduced access to resources such as water and pasture. Many of these adversities arise from conflicts with wildlife, namely wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) populations. Reduced access to pasture is further exacerbated due to bush encroachment from the highland region of the NCA, a problem that would traditionally be controlled through fire management. This practice, though, has long been prohibited by the NCAA and the acceptance of this technique in the 1996 GMP has not been implemented. Lori Swanson 3 Wildlife can benefit from the improvement of the Maasai situation by their involvement in tourism efforts and species monitoring, as it will bring much needed funds to the people and will reduce resentment against wildlife for the restrictions imposed upon them in the name of conservation. Similarly, the native people can be integral players in research efforts for plants and animals to determine the needs of these species and the impacts that environmental changes can have on their populations. Also, as Maasai livestock developments improve conditions for these native people they will naturally phase out cultivation which is not a traditional practice of the Maasai, and will return to their primarily pastoralist existence which has been found to be more compatible with wildlife conservation. Efforts to benefit the Maasai and wildlife should include Maasai education for involvement in tourist operations, the establishment of more cultural bomas and walking tours throughout the surrounding areas of the Crater, disease abatement and improved veterinary services, enhanced medical services, adequate control of immigration, improved water and pasture management practices, increased studies on threatened and isolated species with an emphasis on genetic diversity, and involvement of native Maasai in studies to identify rare species and to increase understanding of the NCA environment. Cooperative efforts between the NCAA and the native Maasai will not only help improve the situation of the Maasai and their livestock, but it will also advance conservation efforts for the preservation of NCA wildlife which are of immense international importance. Acquiring this harmony among all of the entities of the NCA will ensure a long and successful future for the NCA and will allow many generations of tourists to experience the wonders of Ngorongoro. Lori Swanson 4 Introduction Now commonly referred to as the “Eighth Wonder of the World,”[1] Ngorongoro Crater and its surrounding conservation area are deemed of great importance by many different people, for a variety of diverse reasons. Depending on whom one speaks with, whether it be Western conservationists, African conservationists, local residents of surrounding towns, anthropologists, the Tanzanian government, or the resident Maasai, a grand list of attributes can be compiled including items such as outstanding wildlife density, the birth of human evolution, perennial water supply, rain catchments for surrounding regions, resources for subsistence, or maybe simply “home.” Ngorongoro Conservation Area is unique among Tanzanian protected areas in that it allows the pastoralist Maasai tribes and their accompanying livestock to reside within its borders. This distinction can be inferred from its designation as a “conservation area” instead of a national park as seen throughout the rest of Tanzania. The “national park” label inherently implies that the only residents will be wildlife, and that any local people will be moved to the perimeter or other surrounding areas. A “conservation area” works to preserve not only wildlife, but anthropological sites and traditional people as well. The amazing features of Ngorongoro Conservation Area, both wildlife and anthropogenic, have brought great accolades to this “Eighth Wonder of the World.” In 1978 it was designated a World Heritage Site by the Untied Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Three years later, in 1981, the Conservation Area was proclaimed a Biosphere Reserve by the same organization.[2] Though the site has been recognized for its cultural attributes, the management of the caldera and its surrounding area has not necessarily worked to preserve both wildlife and local Maasai residents. An area such as this requires a plan which recognizes and respects the harmony that can exist between pastoralists and wildlife, much as it had years before conservationists stepped foot on the land. Ngorongoro has a colorful human history involving the Maasai, other local African tribes, colonialists, and conservationists. Many visitors and students of wildlife do not know the human history of Ngorongoro caldera, yet further studies will reveal that much of the reason