VOLUME NINE ADVANCES IN PLANAR LIPID BILAYERS AND LIPOSOMES EDITORIAL BOARD Professor Dr. Roland Benz (Wuerzburg, Germany) Professor Dr. Hans G.L. Coster (Sydney, Australia) Professor Dr. Herve Duclohier (Rennes, France) Professor Dr. Yury A. Ermakov (Moscow, Russia) Professor Dr. Alessandra Gliozzi (Genova, Italy) Professor Dr. Alesˇ Iglicˇ (Ljubljana, Slovenia) Professor Dr. Bruce L. Kagan (Los Angeles, USA) Professor Dr. Wolfgang Knoll (Mainz, Germany) Professor Dr. Reinhard Lipowsky (Potsdam, Germany) Professor Dr. Yoshinori Muto (Gifu, Japan) Professor Dr. Ian R. Peterson (Coventry, UK) Professor Dr. Alexander G. Petrov (Sofia, Bulgaria) Professor Dr. Jean-Marie Ruysschaert (Bruxelles, Belgium) Professor Dr. Bernhard Schuster (Vienna, Austria) Professor Dr. Masao Sugawara (Tokyo, Japan) Professor Dr. Yoshio Umezawa (Tokyo, Japan) Professor Dr. Erkang Wang (Changchun, China) Professor Dr. Philip J. White (Wellesbourne, UK) Professor Dr. Mathias Winterhalter (Bremen, Germany) Professor Dr. Dixon J. Woodbury (Provo, USA) VOLUME NINE ADVANCES IN PLANAR LIPID BILAYERS AND LIPOSOMES Editor PROFESSOR DR. A. LEITMANNOVA LIU Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA and Centre for Interface Sciences, Microelectronics Department, Faculty of Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, Slovak Technical University, Bratislava, Slovak Republic Founding Editor PROFESSOR DR. H.T. TIEN Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 32 Jamestown Road, London NW1 7BY, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA First edition 2009 Copyright # 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333; E-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request online via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting ‘‘Support & Contact’’then ‘‘Copyright and Permission’’ and then ‘‘Obtaining Permissions’’ Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-374822-5 ISSN: 1554-4516 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com Printed and bound in USA 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS Preface xi Contributors xiii 1. Current Perspectives in Liposome-Encapsulated Hemoglobin as Oxygen Carrier 1 Hrushikesh Agashe and Vibhudutta Awasthi 1. Introduction 2 2. Lipid Composition of LEH 4 3. PEG Modification of LEH Surface 6 4. Hemoglobin Source 7 5. Particle Size 8 6. Hemoglobin and Oxygen Affinity 9 7. Viscosity of LEH Preparation 11 8. Oncotic Pressure and Isotonocity 12 9. Hemoglobin Auto-oxidation and Methemoglobin Formation 13 10. Current Manufacturing Technology 15 11. Toxicological Issues 16 12. In Vivo Biodisposition 18 13. Physiological and Survival Studies in Animal Models of Hemorrhagic Shock 20 14. Summary 20 Acknowledgments 21 References 21 2. Electric Conductance of Planar Lipid Bilayer as a Tool for the Study of Membrane Pore Selectivity and Blockade 29 Valery F. Antonov, Vladimir P. Norik, and Elena Yu. Smirnova 1. Introduction 30 1.1. Theoretical Background 32 1.2. Formulation of the Experimental Problem 39 2. Experimental 39 2.1. Lipids 39 2.2. Poly(ethylene)glycols 39 2.3. Differential Scanning Calorimetry 40 v vi Contents 2.4. Planar BLMs 40 2.5. Electrical Measurements 40 2.6. Lipid Pore Size Evaluation 40 2.7. Poly(ethylene)glycol Method 40 2.8. Estimation of Membrane Surface Tension s 41 2.9. Estimation of Single Lipid Pore Edge Tension g 42 3. Results 43 3.1. Registration of Lipid Pore Population Appeared in pBLM from DPPC at the Lipid Phase Transition Temperature 43 3.2. Lipid Phase Transition in pBLM and Electric Current Fluctuations 45 3.3. The Appearance of Single Lipid Pores in the pBLM from Natural Phospholipids 48 3.4. Line Edge Tension of Lipid Pore 48 3.5. Evaluation of Lipid Bilayer Stability 50 3.6. Blocking Effect of PEGs on Single Lipid Pore Conductance 52 4. Discussion 59 5. Conclusion 61 Acknowledgments 62 References 62 3. Physicochemical and Pharmacokinetic Characterization of Ultradeformable Vesicles using Calcein as Hydrophilic Fluorescent Marker 65 Ana Paula Correˆa Oliveira Bahia, Larissa Barbosa Rabelo, Warley Cristiano Souza, Lucas Antonio Miranda Ferreira, and Fre´de´ric Fre´zard 1. Introduction 66 2. Physicochemical Characterization of Ultradeformable Vesicles 68 2.1. Composition and Process of Preparation 68 2.2. Mean Hydrodynamic Diameter and Deformability 69 2.3. Encapsulation Efficiency of Calcein: Influence of the Formulation Final Concentration 69 2.4. Membrane Permeability to Calcein 71 3. Pharmacokinetics of Calcein from Ultradeformable Vesicles 73 3.1. In Vitro Skin Permeation of Calcein 73 3.2. In Vivo Studies of the Transdermal Absorption of Calcein to the Blood Circulation 76 4. Concluding Remarks: New Model for the Mode of Action of Ultradeformable Vesicles 81 Acknowledgments 84 References 84 Contents vii 4. Electrical Methods for Determining Surface Charge Density and Electrolyte Composition at the Lipid Bilayer-Solution Interface 87 Derek Laver 1. Introduction 88 2. Bilayer Capacitance as a Probe for Bilayer Surface Potential 91 3. Apparatus for Measuring Perfusion Induced Current Transients in Lipid Bilayers 92 4. Exchange of Solutions Induced Bilayer Current Transient 94 5. Deriving Surface Potential and Surface Charge Density from Capacitive Current 96 6. Bilayer Capacitive Currents can be Used to Monitor Solution Exchange 100 7. Bilayer Capacitive Currents can be Used to Monitor Changes in Lipid Composition 101 8. Conclusions 103 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 5. Micropatterned Lipid Bilayer Membranes on Solid Substrates 107 Kenichi Morigaki 1. Introduction 108 1.1. Substrate-Supported Planar Lipid Bilayers 108 1.2. Micropatterning Substrate-Supported Planar Lipid Bilayers 108 1.3. Micropatterned Composite Membrane of Polymerized and Fluid Lipid Bilayers 109 2. Lithographic Polymerization of Lipid Bilayers 113 3. Incorporation of Fluid Lipid Bilayers 117 4. Controlling the Ratios of Polymerized and Fluid Lipid Bilayers 122 5. Incorporation of Biological Membranes into Micropatterned Bilayers 126 6. Conclusions and Outlook 128 Acknowledgments 129 References 130 6. Salt-Induced Morphological Transitions in Nonequimolar Catanionic Systems: Spontaneous Formation of Blastulae Aggregates 135 Nina Vlachy, Didier Touraud, and Werner Kunz 1. Introduction 136 1.1. Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic Molecules 136 1.2. Spontaneous Formation of Vesicles 137 1.3. Catanionic Surfactant Mixtures 139 viii Contents 1.4. Application of Catanionic Vesicles in Cosmetic and Drug Delivery 140 1.5. The Present Study 141 2. Experimental Procedures 142 2.1. Materials 142 2.2. Sample Preparation 142 2.3. Dynamic Light Scattering Measurements 142 2.4. Rheology 143 2.5. Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy (cryo-TEM) 143 2.6. Freeze-Fracture Electron Microscopy 143 3. Results 143 3.1. Characterization of SDS/DTAB Micellar Solution 143 3.2. Salt-Induced Micelle-to-Vesicle Transition 145 4. Discussion 149 4.1. Models of the Micelle-to-Vesicle Transition 149 4.2. Blastulae Vesicles 151 4.3. The Occurrence of Convex–Concave Patterns in Biological Systems 152 4.4. Raspberry Vesicles 153 4.5. Blastulae Vesicles: A General Trend in Catanionic Systems? 154 5. Conclusions 155 References 155 7. Transformation Between Liposomes and Cubic Phases of Biological Lipid Membranes Induced by Modulation of Electrostatic Interactions 163 Masahito Yamazaki 1. Introduction 164 2. Effects of Surface Charges due to Charged Lipids on the Stability of the Q Phases 171 3. Effects of Surface Charges due to Adsorbed Charged Peptides on the Stability of the Q Phases 176 4. Mechanism of the Electrostatic Interactions-Induced Phase Transition Between the Q Phase and the La Phase 181 2þ 5. Effects of Ca and pH on the Phase Transition Between the La Phase and the Q Phases 187 6. Effects of Charged Peptides and Osmotic Stress on the Stability of the Q Phases of the Charged Lipid Membranes 195 7. Conclusion 200 Appendix: Spontaneous Curvature of Monolayer Membranes 201 Acknowledgments 205 References 205 Contents ix 8. The Impact of Astrocytes in the Clearance of Neurotransmitters by Uptake and Inactivation 211 Katja Perdan, Metoda Lipnik-Sˇtangelj, and Mojca Krzˇan 1. Astrocytes 212 1.1. Structure 213