Consonant Reduction in Copenhagen Danish A study of linguistic and extra -linguistic factors in phonetic variation and change Nicolai Pharao Department of Scandinavian Studies and Linguistics, University of Copenhagen Contents 1. Introduction to the present study ..................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Variation and change in Usage Based Phonology ..................................................................... 9 1.2 Studying on-going sound change – sociolinguistic approaches .............................................. 10 1.3 Major goals of the investigation .............................................................................................. 13 2. Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 14 2.1 Description of the corpora used ............................................................................................... 14 2.1.1 The DanPASS Dialogues .................................................................................................. 14 2.1.2 The LANCHART Cph Corpus ......................................................................................... 17 2.2 Why Middle Class Speech? ..................................................................................................... 21 2.3 The phonetic data ..................................................................................................................... 22 3. Statistical methodology ................................................................................................................. 25 3.1 Why logistic regression? .......................................................................................................... 25 3.2 Analyzing distributions of categorical data ............................................................................. 27 3.3 Basic procedure – from raw output to final model .................................................................. 28 3.4 Transformations of the raw data .............................................................................................. 29 3.5 Logistic regression – analysis of variation in a categorical variable ....................................... 30 3.5.1 Simple logistic regression ................................................................................................. 31 3.5.2 Multiple logistic regression .............................................................................................. 33 3.5.3 Collinearity ....................................................................................................................... 34 3.6 Mixed effects models ............................................................................................................... 36 3.7 General format for the presentation the analyses .................................................................... 37 4. The Phonetics and Phonology of Danish Consonants ................................................................... 39 4.1 Previous analyses of consonants in Copenhagen Danish – phonetics and phonology ............ 39 4.2 Segmental units of speech ....................................................................................................... 42 5. The Factors .................................................................................................................................... 46 2 5.1 Phonetic factors ........................................................................................................................ 46 5.1.1 Segmental environment ..................................................................................................... 46 5.1.2 Stress ................................................................................................................................. 48 5.1.3 Speech rate ........................................................................................................................ 49 5.1.4 Position in the syllable and position in the word .............................................................. 50 5.1.5 Position in the prosodic phrase .......................................................................................... 51 5.1.6 Stød .................................................................................................................................... 52 5.2 Extra-linguistic factors ............................................................................................................. 52 5.2.1 Age .................................................................................................................................... 52 5.2.2 Gender ............................................................................................................................... 53 6. The descriptive study of the role of linguistic and extra-linguistic factors in consonant reduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 55 6.1 Monophthongization of ( ɑj) ..................................................................................................... 56 6.2 A model of the monophthongization of ( ɑj ) ............................................................................. 61 6.2.1 Characteristics of the model .............................................................................................. 61 6.3 Monophthongization of ( ɒw) ................................................................................................... 65 6.3.1 Reducing the dataset .......................................................................................................... 65 6.4 A model of the monophthongization of ( ɒw) ........................................................................... 67 6.4.1 Further analysis of the following segment ........................................................................ 72 6.5 |p| in spontaneous speech ......................................................................................................... 75 6.6 Variation of (b) ......................................................................................................................... 77 6.7 A model of the reduction of (b) ................................................................................................ 78 6.8 Variation of (p) ......................................................................................................................... 81 6.9 A model of the reduction of (p) ................................................................................................ 82 6.10 |k| in spontaneous speech........................................................................................................ 83 3 6.11 Variation of (g) ...................................................................................................................... 85 6.11.1 Reducing the dataset ....................................................................................................... 85 6.12 A model of the reduction of (g) ............................................................................................. 88 6.13 Characteristics of the model .................................................................................................. 88 6.13.1 Further analysis of the following segment...................................................................... 93 6.14 Variation of (k) ...................................................................................................................... 94 6.15 A model of reduction of (k) ................................................................................................... 95 6.16 The variation of underlying final |t| ....................................................................................... 97 6.17 Variants of (d) ........................................................................................................................ 97 6.17.1 Reducing the dataset ....................................................................................................... 98 6.18 A model of (d) deletion .......................................................................................................... 99 6.19 Characteristics of the model of (d) deletion ........................................................................ 100 6.19.1 The interaction of stress and the preceding segment .................................................... 101 6.19.2 Further analysis of the segmental context .................................................................... 104 6.19.3 Manner of articulation of the preceding consonant ...................................................... 105 6.19.4 Place of articulation of the preceding consonant .......................................................... 106 6.19.5 Manner and place of articulation of the following consonant ...................................... 107 6.19.6 Morphology .................................................................................................................. 108 6.20 General summary ................................................................................................................. 109 7. Phonetic effects in consonant reduction in contemporary Copenhagen Danish .......................... 110 7.1 General patterns of reduction ....................................................................................................