TOMB ARCHITECTURE IN THE KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA PROVINCE (PAKISTAN): AN ANALYTICAL STUDY By Shakirullah INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR 2012 TOMB ARCHITECTURE IN THE KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA PROVINCE (PAKISTAN): AN ANALYTICAL STUDY A thesis, submitted to the Institute of Archaeology and Social Anthropology, University of Peshawar in partial / fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology Approved By: 1. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Nasim Khan ________________ Director, Institute of Archaeology Supervisor and Social Anthropology, University of Peshawar 2. ________________ Internal Examiner 3. ________________ External Examiner INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR 2012 Dedicated to: (Late) Prof. (Dr.) Ahmad Hassan Dani The founder of Archaeology in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province i TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface iii Acknowledgement v CHAPTER-I Introduction 1 CHAPTER-II Historical Setting 9 CHAPTER-III Survey of Monuments 22 1. Pre-Muslim Period 22 2. Sultanate Period 23 3. Mughal Period 30 3.1 Early Mughal (1530-1707) 30 3.2 Late Mughal (1707-1857) 50 4. British period 53 5. Chitral (Northern Area) 67 CHAPTER-IV Architectural and Decorative Features 71 1. Pre-Muslim period 74 2. Sultanate period 76 A. Glazed Tiles Decoration 78 B. Architectural Decoration 79 C. Architectural Features 79 3. Mughal Period 80 3.1 Early Mughal (1530-1707) 81 3.1.1 Reign of Humayun (1530-1538 & 1555-1556) 81 A. Architectural and Decorative Features 81 3.1.2 Reign of Akbar (1556-1605) 83 A. Architectural Features 83 B. Decorative Features 84 C. Painted Decoration 85 3.1.3 Reign of Jahangir (1605-1627) 85 3.1.4 Reign of Shahjahan (1628-1658) 86 ii A. Architectural and Decorative Features 86 B. Painted Decoration 88 3.1.5 Reign of Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707) 89 A. Architectural and Decorative Features 89 B. Woodwork 93 C. Painted Decoration 93 D. Calligraphic Decoration 94 3.2 Late Mughal Period (1707-1857) 95 A. Architectural and Decorative Features 95 B. Painted Decoration 97 C. Calligraphic Decoration 97 4. British Period 97 A. Architectural and Decorative Features 98 B. Mirror / Glasswork 102 C. Woodwork 102 D. Lacquer Work 102 E. Painted Decoration 103 F. Calligraphic Decoration 105 5. Chitral (Northern Areas) 105 A. Architectural Features 105 B. Decorative Features 106 CHAPTER-V Conclusions 108 Appendixes Appendix-A: List of Monuments brought under discussion 115 Appendix-B: List of Figures 119 Appendix-C: List of Plates 121 Bibliography 124 Index 131 Figures Plates iii PREFACE The earliest graves in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP) date since the Āryan advent in this area in about the middle of the second millennium BC1. Both inhumation and cremation were practised as shown by the evidence of numerous graves excavated by the Italian Mission in Pakistan and the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar in the Swāt and Dīr districts of this province. These graves consist merely of rectangular pits dug in the ground with masonry sidewalls in which uneven stone blocks, easily available in 1the neighbourhood, were used2. With the advent of Buddhism in this area in the 3rd century BC during the time of the celebrated Mauryan King Aśoka3, a new mode for burying the ashes of the founder of Buddhism, (Siddharta), who, after his enlightenment came to be known as Buddha, was adopted. Now the grave was built above the level of the ground, which initially looked like a small heap of earth. With the lapse of time it went on evolving and changing shape until it developed into an imposing structure comprising a lofty base under a huge, very often circular, drum which supported a dome of considerable size. These tombs like domical structures called “Stupa” continued to be built until the Ephthalite invasions in the 5th century brought about ruin and destruction4. When Muslims reached KP early in the 11th century the stupas had already decayed. The Muslims introduced an altogether new way of burying the dead. The dead body was placed in a pit dug in the ground and covered with soil forming a small 1 For the advent of Āryan tribes and their advance into South Asia, see Asko Parpola, ‘The coming of the Āryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethic identity of the Dasas’, Studia Orientalia, vol. 64, PP. 195-302, Hel Sinki 1988. 2 Ancient graveyards found in Swat and Dir have been attributed to those incoming Āryan tribes. See G. Staccul, ‘Protohistoric graveyards (c. 1400 – 300 BC)’ and ‘Buner – Chitral Protohistoric gravyards’ in Italain Archaeological Mission, (IsMEO) Pakistan, Swat – Documentary Exhibition – 1956 –1981, PP. 16-18. Peshawar, March 1-4. 1982; A. H. Dani, Ancient Pakistan, vol. III, 1967, pp. 1-407. 3 According to the Mahavamsa, the Third Buddhist Council met in the time of Asoka at his capital Pataliputra and was presided over by the monk Moggaliputta Tissa (Upagupta in the northern texts). The Council deputed missionaries to different countries. The monk Majjhantika was sent to Gandhara and Kashmir. See R. C. Majumdar, ed., The History and Culture of Indian Peoples, Bombay. 5th edn. 1980, P. 84. 4 J. Marshall in his book, The Buddhist Art of Gandhara, (2nd. edn. Karachi, 1973, P.1) remarks “Finally, the death-blow to its (Gandhara) prosperity was given by the Ephthalites or White Huns, who swept over the country about AD 465, carrying fire and sword wherever they went and destroying the Buddhist monasteries”. iv rectangular mound. Enclosing this mound was raised a square room5 having, very often, domical roof. In some cases flat room is also found. This room embellished in many different ways is called tomb. It needs to be pointed out that such an ornate burial was neither recommended by Islam nor could every Muslim aspire for it. It is only the selected few among the rulers and Sufis (saints) whose dead bodies were given such an honour. How this tomb architecture developed in KP is stated in the following pages. The study is based upon an extensive field survey. The monuments reported by other writers have also been included and their labour duly acknowledge. A few words are necessary to explain the system of transliteration adopted in this work. I have not strictly followed the system of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, as it appears to be only bewildering to the general reader unacquainted with the Arabic alphabet and pronunciation. I have given the words as commonly pronounced by non- Arabs, but some of the sounds have been differentiated with the help of dots. The Arab conveys a sound identical with S in ‘sin’ and is accordingly-ث letter non a ot pronounced as such. Nor, unless an Arabic scholar, does he perceive any difference sad). He pronounces them all alike. But we have put a dot below) ص and ث between Zoi) convey) ظ Zad) and) ض ,(Zay) ز ,(Zal) ذ Similarly, the letters .ص S to indicate ث to the non-Arab almost identical sound. He also perceives no difference between as in A h mad) and the softer form as in) ح toi), or between the hard aspirate) ط and such ث with h. But in the case of words spelt with a ح Hārūn. But we have indicated as hadis, I have considered it necessary to denote the Arabic pronunciation with a th. The ordinary fatha or zabar I have represented by a pronounced as u in ‘cut’ or ‘but’; the ordinary zamma or pesh by u (pronounced like u in pull; the ordinary kasra or zer with the letter i, as in gift. Long ū is represented by the u as in Hārūn, long i by ī and ع with fatha I have represented by au as in maudūd. The letter ﻗ long a by a. Waw by ق ,ghain) is denoted by gh) غ áin) is represented by an inverted comma. The letter) .by d. The rest of the letters are the same as in English د by kh and خ ,q 5 Only wealthy people could afford such a burial. Common people were satisfied with a simple grave with no room to cover it. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The compilation of a research work needs many hands and many indeed are the people, who have been helped me one-way or the other. I gratefully acknowledge their help, though it is not possible for me to name all of them individually. I owe a great debt of gratitude to my supervisor Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Nasim Khan, Director, Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Peshawar, for his guidance, help, correction and efficient supervision. I have always been indebted to my revered teacher Dr. Abdur Rehman, former Professor and Chairman of the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar, founder of the Department of Archaeology, University of the Punjab, Lahore; formerly Consultant for the Directorate of Archaeology and Museum, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, for his guidance, fatherly affection and ever-ready help and cooperation at the hour of need. I am extremely thankful to him for making necessary corrections in the initial draft and for useful suggestions for the improvement of this work. The author is also thankful to Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Farooq Swati, Dean Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Peshawar for his cooperation during this work. The author is grateful to Prof. Farid Khan, former Chairman of the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar and founder Director, Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, for his valuable discussions and help and to Dr. Muhammad Asif Khan, Director, Centre for Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar for his cooperation. I shall be failing in my duty, if I do not mention the names of my friends Dr.