Hoover Press : Peterson/School Choice DP0 HPETSCINTR rev2 page 1 Introduction After Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, What Next? PAUL E. PETERSON In the most anticipated decision of its 2002 term, the Supreme Court ruled, in the case of Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, that the school voucher program in Cleveland, Ohio, did not violate the Constitution’s ban on the “establishment” of religion. Opponents of vouchers—that is, the use of public funds to help low-income families pay tuition at private schools, including religious schools—were predictably disappointed, but pledged to Þght on. As Senator Edward M. Kennedy declared, “Vouch- ers may be constitutional,” but “that doesn’t make them good policy.” The policy’s sympathizers, needless to say, saw the ruling in a different light. President George W. Bush used the occa- sion of the Supreme Court’s decision to issue a full-throated endorsement of vouchers. Zelman, he told a gathering in Cleveland, did more than remove a constitutional cloud; it was a “historic” turning point in how Americans think about edu- cation. In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Court had ruled that the country could not have two sets of schools, “one for African-Americans and one for whites.” Now, the president Hoover Press : Peterson/School Choice DP0 HPETSCINTR rev2 page 2 2 Paul E. Peterson continued, in ruling as it did in the Cleveland case, the Court was afÞrming a similar principle, proclaiming that “our nation will not accept one education system for those who can afford to send their children to a school of their choice and one for those who can’t.” Zelman, according to the President, is Brown all over again. But is it? That question forms the core issue addressed in this collection of papers, most of which were initially pre- sented at a conference hosted by the Program on Education Policy and Governance at Harvard University in October 2002. Part One of the volume looks at the legal meaning of Zelman, assessing whether its legal impact is broad or narrow. Part Two explores the broader political and policy context in the wake of this Supreme Court decision. Altogether, the collection as a whole provides an overview of the direction in which the school choice movement is likely to go in the years ahead. Publicly funded school vouchers got their start in Milwau- kee, Wisconsin, in 1990. Established at the urging of local black leaders and Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson (now Secretary of Health and Human Services), the program was originally restricted to secular private schools and included fewer than a thousand needy students. To accom- modate growing demand, religious schools were later allowed to participate, an arrangement declared constitutional in 1998 by the Wisconsin Supreme Court. The Milwaukee program now provides a voucher worth up to $5,785 each to over 10,000 students, amounting to more than 15 percent of the school sys- tem’s eligible population. In 1999, at the behest of Governor Jeb Bush, Florida also established a publicly funded voucher program, aimed at stu- dents attending public schools that failed to meet state stan- dards. Though only a few hundred students were participating in the failing-school program in 2003, another 9,000 students Hoover Press : Peterson/School Choice DP0 HPETSCINTR rev2 page 3 Introduction 3 were participating in a separate voucher program for those found to be in need of special education. The failing-school program in Florida is also noteworthy because it served as a model for the voucher-like federal scholarship program advo- cated by George W. Bush during the 2000 presidential cam- paign. Though the Milwaukee and Florida programs received the most public attention, it was the program in Cleveland that Þnally reached the writing desk of the Chief Justice. The Cleve- land program is relatively small, providing in 2003 a maximum of $2,750 a year to each of roughly 5,000 students. Parents use the vouchers overwhelmingly for religious schools, which in recent years have matriculated over 90 percent of the pro- gram’s participants. This, according to lawyers for the teachers unions, the most powerful foe of vouchers, constituted an obvi- ous violation of the separation between church and state. The unions prevailed twice in federal court, winning decisions at the trial and appellate level against Susan Zelman, Ohio’s superintendent of public instruction and the ofÞcial respon- sible for administering the Cleveland program. But the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, was not per- suaded. In his opinion for the majority in Zelman, Chief Justice William Rehnquist pointed to three well-known precedents— Mueller (1983), Witters (1986), and Zobrest (1993)—in which the Court had allowed government funds to ßow to religious schools. What these cases had in common, Chief Justice Rehn- quist wrote, and what they shared with the Cleveland voucher program, was that public money reached the schools “only as a result of the genuine and independent choices of private individuals.” Under Cleveland’s program, families were in no way coerced to send their children to religious schools; they had a range of state-funded options, including secular private schools, charter schools, magnet schools, and traditional pub- Hoover Press : Peterson/School Choice DP0 HPETSCINTR rev2 page 4 4 Paul E. Peterson lic schools. As Kenneth W. Starr points out in the opening essay below, Rehnquist concluded that the voucher program was “entirely neutral with respect to religion.” The dissenters in Zelman, led by Justice David Souter, challenged the majority’s reading of the relevant precedents— especially of Nyquist (1973), a ruling that struck down a New York State program giving aid to religious schools—and sug- gested that the choice in Cleveland between religion and non- religion was a mere legal Þction. They saved their most pointed objections, however, for what they saw as the likely social con- sequences of the ruling. The Court, Souter wrote, was promot- ing “divisiveness” by asking secular taxpayers to support, for example, the teaching of “Muslim views on the differential treatment of the sexes,” or by asking Muslim Americans to pay “for the endorsement of the religious Zionism taught in many religious Jewish schools.” Justice Stephen Breyer suggested that the decision would spark “a struggle of sect against sect,” and Justice John Paul Stevens wondered if the majority had considered the lessons of other nations’ experience around the world, including “the impact of religious strife ...onthedeci- sions of neighbors in the Balkans, Northern Ireland, and the Middle East to mistrust one another.” In his essay below, Peter Berkowitz reßects on the vitriol contained within these comments, pointing out that there is little in the practice of religious schools in the United States that justiÞes such language. Moreover, most of the world’s democracies fund both religious and secular schools without causing undue domestic turmoil. In their essay on the way in which the religious issue is handled in other countries, Charles L. Glenn and Jan De Groof show that tensions can be managed without bitter, divisive controversy. Still, if judicial rhetoric is all that counts, the dissenters in Zelman had the better of it. In the majority opinion, by con- Hoover Press : Peterson/School Choice DP0 HPETSCINTR rev2 page 5 Introduction 5 trast, there is very little that rises to the level of Brown’s often- cited language about the demands of American equality. Even observers pleased by the ruling were disappointed that the majority’s opinion did not go much beyond showing how the facts of the case Þt past precedents; there are no ringing dec- larations in Chief Justice Rehnquist’s stodgy prose. In fact, the decision may have been a narrow one, hardly in the same league as Brown. In two separate essays, Stephen K. Green as well as Louis R. Cohen and C. Boyden Gray suggest that Zel- man may have been a more narrow decision than some believe. In Cleveland, vouchers were accompanied by charter schools (called community schools in Ohio) and other forms of school choice, which give parents a range of secular options that accompanied the religious ones obtained through vouchers. They point out that it is not altogether clear whether voucher initiatives are unconstitutional in the absence of a signiÞcant range of secular choices. Still, in separate concurring opinions written by two of the Justices one gets a sense of the wider issues at stake. Respond- ing to the worries of the dissenters, Justice Sandra Day O’Connor pointed out that taxpayer dollars have long ßowed to various religious institutions—through Pell Grants to denominational colleges and universities; through child-care subsidies that can be used at churches, synagogues, and other religious institutions; through direct aid to parochial schools for transportation, textbooks, and other materials; and, indi- rectly, through the tax code, which gives special breaks to the faithful. If government aid to religious institutions were such a problem, she suggested, wouldn’t American society be torn already by sectarian strife? As Peter Berkowitz points out, several well-designed stud- ies have shown that students who attend private schools in the U.S. are not only just as tolerant of others as their public school Hoover Press : Peterson/School Choice DP0 HPETSCINTR rev2 page 6 6 Paul E. Peterson peers but are also more engaged in political and community life. Catholic schools have a particularly outstanding record, probably because for more than a century American Catholics have felt compelled to teach democratic values as proof of their patriotism. There are obviously some extremists, but there is no reason to doubt that most of the country’s religious schools are attempting to prove that they, too, can create good citizens.