PATTERNS OF EXCHANGE IN THREE INUIT COMMUNITIES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY WILLIAM MALCOLM SHARPE B.A. (Hons. ) , Simon Fraser University, 1969 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In the Department of Political Science, Sociology, and Anthropology @ WILLIAM MALCOLM SHARPE 19 76 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY January, 1976 All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis or dissertation (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for 'such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its 'own behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission for multiple copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. , I Title of Thes is/~lssertation: .+* Patterns of jn -IP~.. An Study Author : (signature) William M. Sharw (name ) Januarv 21. 1976. (date) APPROVAL - Name: William Malcolm Sharpe Degree: Master of Arts Title of Thesis: Patterns of Exchange in Three Inuit Communities: An Exploratory Study Examining Committee : Chairperson: Marilyn Gates Ian Whitaker Senior Supervisor Karl Peter Herbert L. ~lexande/r External Examiner Simon Fraser University ABSTRACT The thesis centres around an inquiry into the decline of several Inuit customs involving the sharing of labour and goods beyond the level of the household but within the boundaries of the local canmunity. The early disappearance of several promin- -- . ent customs -- such as the community-wide caribou hunt -- can be traced to such factors as the adoption of the rifle, the indi- vidualizing influence of fur trapping, and in some cases the conversion to Christianity. However, hospitality, gift-exchange, some commensality, and certain forms of cooperation survived the early contact period, suggesting that the further decline of these practices must be explained by the presence of different variab les . When the economic and personality needs met by community-wide distribution are examined, it becomes apparent that the alloca- tion of social approval and the economic interdependence created by traditional exchange practices served to restrain the internal solidarity of the Inuit household. Against this background, the new-found ability of individual households to satisfy the bulk of their food, fuel, and clothing requirements through the use of imported supplies undermines the effectiveness of the rewards and controls which maintain the customary circulation of assist- ance. The flaw of goods and assistance through the kinship ex- change network is therefore interrupted by the reliance of indi- vidual households on imported supplies of essential goods. With this in mind, the problem investigated in this thesis is that of determining whether the incidence of gif t-exchange , mutual iii sharing, and cooperation beyond the level of the household in Inuit communities can be expected to decrease with a rise in the use of imported food, clothing, and fuel. In order to answer this question, the inquiry examines the hypothesis that a correlation will be found in three Inuit com- munities between: (1) the incidence of mutual sharing, cooper- ation, and gift-exchange beyond the level of the household with- in each community; and (2) the extent to which the people of each canmunity have come to rely on imported supplies of food, clothing, and fuel. A detailed review of the expectations gov- erning exchange in each community is combined with an evaluation of deviations from the norm and with a discussion of the available data concerning the variables in question. Rather than utilize the fragmentary data made available for a variety of Inuit groups by early explorers, missionaries, or traders, the inquiry relies entirely on detailed studies con- ducted between 1952 and 196 8 by anthropological f ieldworkers. Since 1nuit residence and exchange practices vary from season to season, it was necessary to select monographs prepared by ob- servers who remained in the field for at least one full year. The range of suitable ethnography was further restricted by the need for information comparing Inuit communities with differing subsistence patterns, with varying exposure to contact with the outside world, and with no physical contact between them. Se- lected for study are the Sivokakmeit, sea mammal hunters of the Sering Sea; the Nunamiut, traditionally caribou hunters of in- land northern Alaska; and the Utkuhikhalingmiut, who occupied iv an isolated region to the north-west of Hudson Bay, relying pri- marily on fish, sea mammals, and caribou. By comparing these three communities, it is possible to introduce controls for var- iables such as the changes in subsistence which followed contact. The key points presented in the thesis are summarized on page vi. Among the Utkuhikhalingmiut, who make the most use of local resources, the exchange of goods and labour is governed entirely by traditional expectations which support mutual sharing, cooperation, and gift-exchange beyond the level of the household. The Sivokakmeit, who rely most heavily on imported commodities, have begun to employ market transactions among themselves and to withdraw from their customary exchange networks. It may be con- cluded that the hypothesis is supported by the available data, keeping in mind that the methodological weaknesses of the thesis suggest that it be regarded as an exploratory study. SUMMARY OF DATA UTKUHIKHAL INGMIUT NUNAMIUT SIVOKAKMEIT dinter: fish, trap, I+!inter : frequent Winter: ice hunting of trade. trapping & hunting walrus, seal. Spring: seal, birds, away from village Spring: boat hunting, Annual fish. Summef : some fish, whale, walrus, seal, Summer: fish, minor trapping, hunting. Surmner: greens, birds, Cycle trade. spring fish. Fall: fish, caribou. an d caribou. Fall: fish, seal. Fall: Considerable wage Limited wage labour labour, trapping , & souvenir making and handicrafts. -- - - Canvas tents, kerosene Access to store 1ocal.Imported fuel, house Food, flour, tea, etc. insulation, tools, Skin clothing, local Local fuel, neat, fat, motors, much food, Fuel, & meat, fish oil fuel skins. nearly all clothes. Some local meat, very Clothin2 little fuel, almost no skin clothing. trade extensive but Contact prior to 1850 Heavy contact since difficult due to dis- Serious disruption in late 1800's. Whaling, tance. Visits from move to Coast and trapping, mission, Contact mission. Mail with return. store, school, Reindeei relatives outside. PIhite store, school. Co., CAA & military Employment limited. bases. No settled residence. Permanent village Permanent dwellings , Resi- Tents, snowhouse, Frequent absences in little or no seasonal dence winter aggregation & winter and some in movement. summer dispersal summer to trap, hunt. 30 persons. 96 persons. 250-300 persons. 8 households. 18 households. about 50 households. Society personal kindred. Household clusters. Lineages and patrician: extended bilateral Bilateral kindred bilateral kinship. kindred, with exten. 2 factions of prior sive overlapping in bands. community. Less overlapping Extreme solicitude. hphasis on valued. Varied with kinship distance, proximity, need, & personal Exchangc preference. All trans, actions made as gifts. conmi tment s . purchase internal1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A number of people have given freely of their time, advice, and expertise during the preparation of this manuscript. First of all, I would like to thank Dr. Ian Xhitaker for his encouragement and good humour, for his sound counsel, and for his expert guidance through the mass of literature dealing with the Arctic. In addition to accepting the unexpected administrative and pedagogical burden generated by this thesis, he has coped admirably with the task of nurturing an appreciation for empir- ical detail without undermining my preoccupation with abstract prob lems. To Fred Brown, who also stepped into the breach left by the loss of Ernest Becker, I owe a special debt of gratitude. His teaching provided a perspective that has been a source, not only of academic inspiration, but also of personal comfort and con•’i- dence. For having strengthened my understanding of the process of inquiry, thank you, Fred. The semblance of order in the presentation of this thesis is due largely to the efforts of Dr. Karl Peter. Although the study is still far from ideal in a nethodological sense, it has been considerably improved by the attempt to meet the standards of scientific discipline. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, without whose toler- ance and support this encounter with academia would have beec impossible. May her patience be rewarded in the years ahead. TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL ......................... ii ABSTRACT ......................... iii SUMMARY OF DATA ..................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................,.... vii CHAPTER ONE : THE FRAME OF REFERENCE ........... 1 CHAPTER TWO: THE UTKUHIKHALINGMIUT . , . , , , , , . 20 CHAPTER THREE: THE NUNAMIUT ............... 44 CHAPTER FOUR: THE SIVOKAKMEIT .............. 68 CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS .......... 92 FOOTNOTES ........................ 109 SELECTED