STUDYING THE HEARTS OF SHIPS: 16TH-CENTURY MAINMAST STEPS AND BILGE PUMP ASSEMBLIES THROUGH AN ANNALES NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE by Charles Dillon Bendig B.A., Northern Illinois University, 2011 A thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology College of Arts, Social Sciences, and Humanities The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 2016 The thesis of Charles Bendig is approved: ____________________________________________ _________________ Amy Mitchell-Cook, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ John Bratten, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ John Worth, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ Gregory Cook, Ph.D., Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: ____________________________________________ _________________ John R. Bratten, Ph.D., Chair Date Accepted for the University: ____________________________________________ _________________ John Clune, Ph.D., Date Associate Vice Provost for Academic Programs ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am profoundly indebted to the many individuals who have assisted, either directly or indirectly, over the course of this project. First and foremost, without financial support by Dr. Elizabeth Benchley and the UWF Archaeology Institute, along with a grant by Florida's Division of Historical Resources, this project would not have been completed. Along with these groups, Karen Mims was also instrumental in providing logistical support so that I could attend several conferences to disseminate my research. Over the past four years many staff and students from UWF maritime field schools (2013-2016) took part in the project's fieldwork, I wish to thank each and everyone for helping to uncover an important part of history. Thank you to Austin Burkhard, Nicole Mauro, Caitlin Bronston-Flynn, Emily Youngman, Hunter Whitehead, Ben Wells, Arlice Marionneaux, Chris Dvorscak, Andrew Derlikowski, Matt Newton, and Stew Hood for braving the elements during the last two years to come out everyday and do the archaeology that we love. I also appreciate the many shipbuilding conversations between myself, Stephen Atkinson, and Andrew Willard, which assisted in helping to instill insight in me on all aspects of 16th-century shipwrecks. Lastly, this project would still be ongoing if it was not for the support and drive of our field director, Meghan Mumford, who came out even on her days off to make sure we could uncover the shipwreck in a timely manner. I will always be eternally grateful for her consideration and accommodation of my research goals. Every member of my thesis committee was influential in guiding me towards becoming a better writer and archaeologist. Dr. John Worth's encouragement was instrumental in instilling a vigorous work ethic that left us both excited for all the discoveries we shared together. His intellectual conversations and kindness continue to inspire me in my future endeavors. I would iii not be the writer I am today without Dr. Amy Mitchell-Cook's assistance in providing thorough edits that allowed me to fix my own mistakes and improve over the course of my research. I am also personally grateful to Dr. Greg Cook and Dr. John Bratten for being my underwater archaeology mentors throughout my time at UWF. Both gentlemen provided me with an abundance of insight into how to overcome the many problems that arose during excavation. I will always appreciate the trust that both of them placed upon me to properly excavate and analyze the section of a 16th-century shipwreck. I could not have reached the end of this journey if it was not for my close friends and family, whom stuck with me throughout this lengthy process. Thank you to Ericha Sappington, Jillian Okray, and Michael Okray for spending countless hours discussing thesis ideas and allowing me to find solace when I needed a break from my research. Finally, I cannot express enough gratitude to my family, Susan Bendig, Charles J. Bendig, and James Bendig for allowing me to pursue my dreams and follow my own path through life; this thesis is dedicated to them. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix UNDERSTANDING THE "HEART" OF A 16TH-CENTURY SHIP .......................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Research Objectives and Parameters ........................................................................................ 2 Previous Research ..................................................................................................................... 4 Nautical Archaeology as the Annales Approach ...................................................................... 9 ARCHIVAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHODOLOGY ON EMANUEL POINT II ...... 13 Archival Research ................................................................................................................... 13 Mainmast Step Predictive Modeling ....................................................................................... 14 Excavation and Recording Procedures ................................................................................... 16 Photograph and Laboratory Methodology .............................................................................. 17 MAINMAST STEPS .................................................................................................................... 20 Mediterranean Tradition ......................................................................................................... 21 Early Mainmast Steps and Supports .................................................................................... 21 Mast Steps In The Archaeological Record .......................................................................... 29 Romano-Celtic Tradition of Northwestern Europe ................................................................ 32 Scandinavian Tradition ........................................................................................................... 40 Mast Steps and Medieval Cogs ............................................................................................... 45 Sailing and Mast Steps Across Europe ................................................................................... 50 BILGE PUMPS ............................................................................................................................. 54 Archaeological Evidence for Chain Pumps ............................................................................ 55 Tracking the Paternoster Chain Pump After A.D. 700 ........................................................ 59 Cultural and Technological Decisions for Chain Pumps in Antiquity ................................ 63 Finding the Burr Pump in Northern Europe ........................................................................... 64 Appearance of the Common Pump (A True Suction Pump) .................................................. 74 Understanding the Bilge Pump Through History ................................................................... 77 SHIP TYPOLOGIES AND CONTEMPORARY CASE STUDIES ............................................ 84 Ship Typologies (1400-1600) ................................................................................................. 84 Archaeological Case Studies (1450-1600) ............................................................................. 90 Ria de Aveiro A and Newport ............................................................................................. 90 Cais do Sodré ....................................................................................................................... 95 Cattewater ............................................................................................................................ 97 Highborne Cay ..................................................................................................................... 99 Rye Vessel A and Studland Bay ........................................................................................ 100 Mary Rose .......................................................................................................................... 102 v 27M .................................................................................................................................... 104 Emanuel Point I.................................................................................................................. 105 San Juan (24M).................................................................................................................. 107 Western Ledge Reef ........................................................................................................... 109 29M .................................................................................................................................... 111 Arade 1 ..............................................................................................................................