a FOREIGN POLICY-MAKING IN NAMIBIA: THE DYNAMICS OF THE SMALLNESS OF A STATE by Samuel Abraham Peyavali Mushelenga submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject INTERNATIONAL POLITICS at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: Ms Jo-Ansie van Wyk DATE: November 2008 b Student Number: 312 887 15 I declare that Foreign policy-making in Namibia: the dynamics of the smallness of a state is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ___________________ __________________ S A P MUSHELENGA DATE i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my profound gratitude to all the people who assisted me during the process of conducting this study. I am indebted to Gerhard Totemeyer and Sackey Akweenda who provided guidance during the preliminary stage of the study. Lucia Iipumbu has been instrumental during the initial phase of the study, providing me with examples of drafting the research proposals. André du Pisani made critical comments during the initial phase of the study and generously provided me with enough academic literature on International Relations. Jo-Ansie van Wyk brought hope in my studies as she provided much valuable critical comments, encouragement and support. I am indebted to Isak Hamata, who provided me with the information that I needed from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He and Netumbo-Nandi Ndaitwah provided me with their personal study material on International Relations. I am grateful to the staff at the Namibian Parliament Library who provided me with unlimited access to library facilities and copies of the Hansards that I needed in conducting the study. I am equally indebted to the staff at the National Library, UNAM Library and the National Archives for making it easy for me to access the necessary materials for the study. I would like to thank all the individuals that I interviewed, including former SWAPO and Namibian diplomats, members of the opposition parties and civil society organisations. They have all provided valuable information and enriched my study. My gratitude goes to former President Sam Nujoma and President Hifikepunye Pohamba for their personal encouragements. Hage Geingob and Theo-Ben Gurirab served as personal sources of inspiration and encouragement. Emilia Mkusa transmitted some of my enquiries to Theo- Ben Gurirab when I was unable to meet him. I am grateful to Katrina Liswani for providing me with the relevant information from the AU headquarters in Addis Ababa. Officials from the Ministry of Defence provided me with information on the role of Namibia in UN peace-keeping missions, while officers from the Namibian Police provided me with information on the statistics of landmines ii deaths and injuries in Namibia. Officials from the Ministry of Trade and Industry provided me with information related to trade, which I needed as Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing on Economics, Natural Resources and Public Administration. Some of this information was relevant to my studies. My thanks go to Monica Nashandi from the Office of the President who also provided me with material relevant to the study. I would like to express my appreciation to David Mushaandja and Ben Katjipuka who provided me with computer facilities when I was conducting my studies in northern Namibia and Geneva, Switzerland. Ndapanda Elifas provided valuable assistance. When my memory stick was damaged while I was working on the study in Geneva, she retrieved the study from my back-up system in Namibia and forwarded it to me. I am indebted to Kauna Mufeti, a computer expert at the University of Namibia who assisted me with drawing the structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. I am sincerely grateful to my eldest sister, Taimi Kamati, who language-edited the final version. My mother, Elizabeth Nashilongo Mushelenga (born Shihepo), has been a source of inspiration and she continuously encouraged me to pursue my studies. My wife, Eunike, has been supportive in my studies and excused me from household chores to enable me to finish my studies. My son, Panduleni, provided a sense of humour when the studies were stressful. iii Foreign policy-making in Namibia: the dynamics of the smallness of a state by S. A. P. Mushelenga Degree: Master of Arts Subject: International Politics Supervisor: Ms Jo-Ansie van Wyk SUMMARY This study is about foreign policy-making in Namibia from independence, 1990 to 2008, which is based on Liberalism as an approach to the study of International Relations. Namibia’s foreign policy has three main themes, namely the promotion of world peace, economic diplomacy and South-South cooperation. The domestic actors of Namibia’s foreign policy are the President, Minister of Foreign Affairs and other Government Ministries. Former President Nujoma is pragmatic and persuasive, while President Pohamba maintains a reserved approach. Other domestic actors such as the Parliament, opposition parties and civil society organisations have not been effective in influencing Namibia’s foreign policy-making. Although Namibia is a small state her foreign policy is successful contrary to the traditional perspectives of small states’ foreign policies. Namibia has played an active role in regional and international organisations and maintained a wider scope of foreign policy. Namibia has 24 diplomatic Missions in Africa, Asia, Europe and America. iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAPC All-Africa People’s Conference AAPSO Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Organisation ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries AFD Agencé Française dé Développent (French Development Agency) AMIS African Union Mission in Sudan ANC African National Congress APM Anti-Personnel Mines APRM Africa Peer Review Mechanism AU African Union AWEPA Association of European Parliamentarians for Africa AWEPAA Association of West-European Parliamentarians for Action against Apartheid CCN Council of Churches in Namibia CCTV China Central Television CFI Canal France International CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of State and Government Meeting CNY China Yuan Renminbi CoD Congress of Democrats COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CNTBT Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty CNTBTO Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organisation DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DTA Democratic Turnhalle Alliance ECOWAS Economic Community for West African States EEC European Economic Community EPZ Economic Processing Zone EU European Union GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product GSWA German South West Africa ICJ International Court of Justice IGOs Inter-governmental Organisations IMF International Monetary Fund ISRI Instituto Superior de Relações Internacionais (Higher Institute for International Relations) FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization FDA French Development Agency FLS Frontline States FPA Foreign Policy Analysis FRELIMO Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique) v LDC Least Developed Country MERCOSUR Mercado Común der Sul (Southern Common Market) MNCs Multinational Corporations MoU Memorandum of Understanding MP Member of Parliament MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola) NAM Non-Aligned Movement NAMPA Namibia Press Agency NAMPOL Namibian Police NANSO Namibia National Students Organisation NDF Namibian Defence Force NDP National Development Plan NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NEPRU Namibia Economic Policy Research Unit NGOs Non-governmental Organisations NSHR National Society for Human Rights NTB Namibia Tourism Board OAU Organisation of African Unity ODC Offshore Development Company OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ONUB Opération des Nations Unies au Burundi (United Nations Operation in Burundi) OPC Owambo People’s Congress OPO Owambo People’s Organisation PAIGC Partido Africano da Guine e Cabo Verde (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde Islands) PF Patriotic Front PLO Palestine Liberation Organisation POLISARIO Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro) PROPARCO Société de Promotion et de Participation pour la Coopération Economique (Society for the Promotion and Participation in Economic Cooperation) SACP South African Communist Party SACU Southern Africa Customs Union SADCC Southern Africa Development Coordinating Conference SADC Southern Africa Development Community SADC-PF Southern Africa Development Community – Parliamentary Forum SADR Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic SAPEM Southern Africa Political and Economic Monthly SPAC SWAPO Party Archive and Research Centre SWA South West Africa SWAPO South West Africa People’s Organisation TCL Tsumeb Corporation Limited vi TNCs Transnational Corporations UDF United Democratic Front UN United Nations UNAM University of Namibia UNAVEM III United Nations Angola Verification Mission III UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNESCO United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNISA University of South Africa UNITA União Nacional pela Independência Total de Angola (The Union for the Total Independence of Angola) UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea UNMIK United Nations Mission in Kosovo UNMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia UNOCI United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia UNTAG United Nations Transitional Assistance