HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE I ENGLISH LITERATURE BEFORE CHAUCER (500 -1340) Anglo – Saxon Literature / Old English Literature English literature before Chaucer could be studied under two heads. i) Literature before the Norman Conquest and ii) Literature from the Conquest to the Period of Chaucer. Generally, the period before the Conquest is called Anglo –Saxon or Old English Period (500 – 1066 AD). The most outstanding work produced during the Old English period is Beowulf (anonymous). It is the oldest epic in the English language. The epic deals with the adventures of the hero, Beowulf, in fighting against the ferocious monster, Grendel, who has been wasting his country for twelve years. After killing the monster, Beowulf has to fight against Grendel’s Mother, who is more ferocious than the son. Two poets need special mention with regar4ds to the Old English poetry. They are Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon was a monk who wrote Biblical and religious poetry. Cynewulf’s “Dream of the Rood” and “Christ” were popular. The Anglo –Saxon poetry is characterized by i) Sacred subjects ad earnestness in feeling ii) Love of the sea and adventures, and iii) Alliteration (repetition of the initial consonants). King Alfred wrote prose and he can be rightly called the father of English Prose. His Anglo – Saxon Chronicle is acclaimed as national history and was continued up to 1154. Anglo – Norman Period (1066 AD – 1340 AD) Immediately after the Norman Conquest, Norman French was made the official language of England. English literature, which was making a beginning, ceased to exist. The Revival came during the reign of King John and with Magna Carta, English Language began to assert itself again. A. Anitha Ponmudi 1 Layamon’s Brut (1205) was the first noteworthy product of this revival of the English language. Written in 30,000 lines, the book deals with the legendary history of ancient Britain starting with Aeneas Brutus. Layamon was a priest of Worcestershire. His Brut shows three streams of influence – Celtic, French and English, written in alliterative verses. The poet makes use of occasional rimes. Ormulum by Orm is a series of metrical homilies. The fine imaginative piece of the period is “The Owl and the Nightingale” which is in the form of a dialogue between the two birds about their respective merits. In the early 14th century, the major productions – Robert Mannyng’s Handlyng Synne (Manual of Sins) the prose Ayenbite of Inwyt were translations from the French. The much popular work, Cursor Mundi was a versified account of scripture history. A. Anitha Ponmudi 2 THE AGE OF CHAUCER Life and Works of Chaucer (1340 -1400) Geoffery Chaucer is generally hailed as the Father of English poetry. He was a courtier during the rule of Edward III, Richard II and Henry IV. On several occasions he was sent on diplomatic assignments to France and Italy, which brought him under the literary influence of those countries. During his lifetime England witnessed a terrible plague called the Black Death, bringing poverty and revolt among the peasants. Chaucer’s death marks the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern period. He was the first poet to be buried in the Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer’s works: It is usual to divide Chaucer’s poetry into three periods: the French, the Italian and the English, of which the English is the best. The poems of the French group are modeled upon French Originals. Chaucer wrote two major poems under the French influence – The Romaunt of the Rose and The Boke of the Duchesse. The former is an incomplete translation of a French allegory, Roman de la Rose, describing the pleasures of love, symbolized by Rose. The Boke of the Duchesse is an elegy on the death of Duchess Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, Chaucer’s patron. It is in the form of a French dream poem. The second stage, the Italian period, shows an advance upon the earlier stage. The Parliament of Fowls, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troylus and Cryseyde belong to this period. The Parliament of Fowls commemorates the marriage of Richard II with Anne. It is also a dream poem, written in “Chaucerian Stanza”, riming ababbcc. The House of Fame is another dream allegory celebrating the wedding of Richard II with Anne. The Legende of Good Women tells the stories of the faithful lovers of nine heroines. Troylus and Cryseyde narrates how Troilus, the Trojan prince falls in love with a Greek Girl called Cressid. A. Anitha Ponmudi 3 The third, English period contains the work of the greatest individual accomplishment. Chaucer’s masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales belongs to this period. It is a series of twenty four tales told by pilgrims on their way to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket in Canterbury. A Prologue tells how twenty nine pilgrims pass the nights before the journey at the Tabard Inn and decide to tell two tales on their way to Canterbury and two on their way back. The pilgrims hail from different places and belong to different professions. The work is remarkable for Chaucer’s gift of story telling and skill in characterization. The poetic achievement of Chaucer Chaucer is a great poet who relates his story telling to life. In the choice of his subject, scenic background, characterization, language and versification, he is far ahead of his time. He is a modern poet in this sense. Chaucer is a mild critic of the contemporary society. With a fine sense of humour, he attacks the prevailing corruption of the church. In the matter of poetic technique, English literature owes much to Chaucer. His seven lined stanza is known as the Chaucerian stanza or “rime royal” (ababbcc). He has also introduced the heroic couplet for the first time in The Legende of Good Women. In comparison with the poets of his own time Chaucer is indeed a genius. No doubt, he is the father of English poetry. The Contemporaries of Chaucer Fourteenth century England produced four poets, of whom Chaucer is the greatest. The other three are William Langland, John Gower and John Barbour. William Langland He is generally identified as the author of Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman. It is a long poem in which Langland makes a vehement attack on the vices of the corrupt Church. It is also an allegory like Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. A. Anitha Ponmudi 4 John Gower Gower was a popular writer who wrote in three languages. He is famous for his third work written in English, Confessio Amantis. This has the allegorical setting. The story contains many anecdotes that reveal Gower’s capacity as a story teller. John Barbour Barbour is the first famous Scottish poet. His great work is The Brus, a long poem of twenty books and 1300 lines. It is the history of Scotland’s struggle for freedom till the death of Bruce. Prose of Chaucer’s Age During Chaucer’s period, the English language was ripe for a good prose style. The language was settling for a standard. In the works of Mandeville and Malory, we have a prose that is both original and individual. Though the existence of Mandeville is denied now, The Travels, a compilation from several popular books of voyages, is interesting. The travels are full of incredible descriptions and anecdotes. The style is sweet and clear with colloquial touches. John Wycliffe, an Oxford scholar, began satirizing the abuses of the church. He is said to have brought out an English translation of the Bible. His style is not polished but it is vigorous and pointed with a homely simplicity. He is known as ‘the morning star of Reformation’, because of the influence of his satire on the church. Sir Thomas Malory is famous for his book, Morte d’ Arthur. It is also a compilation of several romances about King Arthur. It is a skilful blend of dialogue and narrative and is full of colour and life, which makes Malory the first great individual prose stylist. Malory’s work came to be published by Caxton in his printing press. A. Anitha Ponmudi 5 Short questions 1. What are works Chaucer produced with the influence of Dante and Petrarch? 2. What are the limitations of Chaucer as a poet? 3. What is the poetical achievement of John Gower? 4. What are the contributions of John Wycliff to the development of prose? A. Anitha Ponmudi 6 FROM CHAUCER TO TOTTLE’S MISCELLANY (1400 – 1557) Poetry of the fifteenth century There was not much of good poetry written during the 15th century. The greater part of the available poetry was imitative. Nearly all of them imitated Chaucer without success. Among the many imitators, a few good ones could be identified. Among the British poets, Thomas Occleve and John Lydgate were important. Both wrote much. Occleve was a clerk in the privy seal office. He wrote a long poem called The Governail of Princes in Chaucer’s seven line stanzas riming ababbcc. His minor poem, Moder of God was printed along with Chaucer’s works. John Lydgate was a monk. He studied and wrote much and gained a reputation as a scholar and a poet. He was a friend of Chaucer on whom he modeled much of his poetry. “The Storie of Thebes”, “The Falles of Princes” and “The Temple of Glass” were his works. He had no ear for metre. Also his work lacked humour and was allegorical. Some of the best poetry of the 15th century was written in Scotland, where the influence of Chaucer was marked.