Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) Angenommen vom Senat der Universität Vechta Vulnerability and Resilience of Dry Land Irrigation Farming Schemes Against Climate Change: A Case of Ruvuma Basin, South Eastern Tanzania Vorgelegt von Musa Leonard Mhagama, 2019. Name des Erstgutachters: apl. Prof. Dr. Kim Philip Schumacher Name des Zweitgutachters: Prof. Dr. Peter Dannenberg, Vechta, November, 2019 Abstract Dry land irrigation farming practises has remained critically important in supplementing nation’s food security during dry season and household income for many rural farmers as well as poverty reduction and other various indirect benefits (employment and economic growth). Despite successful stories in the dry land irrigation farming schemes in South Eastern, Tanzania; the sector has been facing many challenges including the effects of climate variability. Therefore, understanding how the vulnerable and resilience dry land irrigation farming is to the adverse effects of climate change impacts, is critical for reducing vulnerability and enhance adaptive capacity of irrigation farmers. In particular, this thesis examine how irrigation farming schemes are exposed to the adverse effects of climate change variability and how irrigation farmers are responding, adapting and coping with the ongoing changes so to enhance food security, socio-economic development and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change impacts. Other factors making irrigation farming sensitive to climate change impacts and different livelihood diversification options used as coping strategies have been addressed as well. A mixed-method approach, involving qualitative and quantitative methodology for data collection, was adopted. In this study, main techniques for primary data collection were questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation in the field. A sample of 187 irrigation farmers and 5 key informants and 24 people participated in focus-group discussions making a total of 216 individuals. Secondary data were obtained through documentary review and data were analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Secondary data analysis shows a decreasing trend of rainfalls with unpredictable pattern while temperature data indicates an increasing trend. Findings from respondents and interviews indicate that the dry land irrigation farming schemes are exposed to climate variability in terms of increasing extreme temperature, inconsistency periods of dry spells and strong winds which cause excessive evaporation and crop wilting. The majority of the farmers revealed that the farming scheme is very sensitive due to increased crop wilting and decreased soil moisture (extreme temperature) and unfertile soil due to water stagnation (heavy rainfall) and salt accumulation (excessive evaporation). As the dry land farming schemes become more vulnerable to climate change so do farmers respond and adapt to these changes. Irrigation farmers have also been changing their farming practices overtime through soil and water conservation practices, planting crop varieties to withstand drought condition; changing cropping pattern and engaging in various socio-economic activities to diversify their income sources. Interventions options such as water harvesting technology, farm skills training, improved farming, ready market for fresh produce, and agricultural subsidies are recommendable to both stakeholders for the improved and sustained dry land irrigation farming schemes so as to enhance food security and income of farmers as well as socio-economic development. Key words: Dry land farming schemes, climate change, impacts, vulnerability, adaptation, coping strategies, resilience. i | P a g e Acknowledgement I would like to thank the Almighty God for the exceptional blessing and the generous support and kind assistance of many dedicated institutions, organisations and individuals, not all of whom can be mentioned. A number of individuals and institutions have been instrumental in helping and contributing to my PhD study which brought this thesis to fruition. I am deeply grateful to the financial support from the Lower Saxon Government, Germany and contribution study grants from Vechta University (VU) and St. Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT), that enabled me to undertake this PhD study both in Germany and here at home during field data collection. My sincere thanks for intellectual debt are extended to my supervisor, apl. Prof. Dr. Schumacher, Kim Philip (Universität Vechta) and Co-Supervisor Prof. Dr. Peter Dannenberg (Universität zu Köln) for their positive guidance and tireless advice from the proposal writing to the final thesis write-up. They subtly sharpened my thinking and indicated plausible lines of enquiry which contributed to fruition of this thesis. apl. Prof. Dr. Schumacher’s patience and understanding was depicted during field pilot study and preliminary field set-up in Mtwara and Lindi. Furthermore, my special thanks goes to Prof. Dr. Harald Kuenemund (VU); Dr. Dominique Bediako (VU); apl. Prof. Dr. Schumacher, Kim Philip (VU); Rev. Dr. Mkamwa Rev. Dr. Charles Kitima, Rev. Dr. Rutagwerela Longino and Dr. Eustard Tibategeza (SAUT); for their invaluable ideas and comments which guided and enriched me with best research methods and practical skills during my studies in Vechta, Germany. I would also like to thank Mr. Marvin Blum (VU) for his efforts and guidance in research design and survey skills. I am fully acknowledging the logistical support from Principal, Deputy Principal, Administration and Finance and Deputy Principal, Academic Affairs (STEMMUCO) and for granting me a study leave. I thank the Tanzania Meteorological Agency, Mtwara (TMA), Ruvuma Basin Office (RSCB), Zonal Irrigation Office, Mtwara District Council, Lindi Rural District Council and Ruangwa District Council for the permission to collect data and the entire staffs for their support during field data collection. My special gratitude to all irrigation farmers and local communities all six villages studied i.e in Mbuo, Mpapura, Mkwaya, Mnazi moja, Chimbile A and Chiheko villages; for their acceptance to participate in the questionnaires surveys as well as field visits and discussions. I owe thanks to other people including all village chairpersons and other local leaders at village levels for their tremendous efforts and helpful in organizing local community for the study. I must extend my greatest thanks to my friends and fellow PhD students at SAUT as well as the entire staff of SAUT, STEMMUCO and InSPiRE project for their remarkable support and encouragement. Lastly, an outstanding thanks goes to my dearly wife (Marium), my son (Chris), my two daughters (Gifty and Abigael), my mother (Mama Ernestina) and my brothers and my sister for their patience, encouragement and moral support throughout my PhD study. ii | P a g e Table of Contents Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures .............................................................................................................. vii Acronyms ...................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Objectives of the Research Study ....................................................................... 4 1.3.1 General objective .................................................................................................. 4 1.3.2 Specific objectives of the research study .............................................................. 4 1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 5 1.5 Scope of the Study Area .......................................................................................... 5 1.6 Definitions of Key Concepts .................................................................................... 6 1.7 Outline of the Thesis ................................................................................................ 8 CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS, VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE OF DRY LAND IRRIGATION FARMING SCHEMES ...................... 9 2.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 9 2.1 Overview of Agricultural Production and Irrigation Farming Practices ................. 9 2.1.1 Global Overview of Agricultural Production ....................................................... 9 2.1.2 Challenges Facing Agricultural Production ........................................................ 11 2.1.3 Overview of Irrigation Farming