The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School School of Humanities KALLAH’S CHOICE: HAIR COVERING PRACTICES OF ORTHODOX WOMEN IN AN AMERICAN SMALL TOWN A Dissertation in American Studies by Amy K. Milligan © 2012 Amy K. Milligan Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2012 ii The dissertation of Amy K. Milligan was reviewed and approved* by the following: Simon J. Bronner Distinguished Professor of American Studies and Folklore Director, American Studies Doctoral Program Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Michael Barton Professor of American Studies and Social Sciences Kamini Grahame Associate Professor of Sociology Charles Kupfer Associate Professor of American Studies and History Andrea B. Lieber Special Member Sophia Ava Asbell Chair in Judaic Studies Dickinson College *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. iii ABSTRACT Hair covering serves as a siman nisuin (sign of marriage) for many Orthodox Jewish women. This ethnographic study profiles the hair covering practices of a small-town Orthodox synagogue that struggles with the tensions of acculturation, assimilation, and identity in a context where it is difficult to live as an observant Jew. Using hair covering as an entry point into the lives of these women, an understanding of the empowerment of the choice to cover (or not to cover) hair emerges that demonstrates the congregation's commitment to safeguarding traditional Judaism. I argue with comparative cultural, psychological, ethnographic analysis that women's uplifting of hair covering as a ritualized behavior is critical to the survival of Orthodoxy in their situated context. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... vii Prologue .............................................................................................................................. ix Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1. A HAIRY SUBJECT: APPROACHES TO HAIR AND HAIR COVERING.... 1 Problem Statement: My Approach to Hair Covering .............................................. 3 Approaching Hair Study .......................................................................................... 5 Hair as Symbol ......................................................................................................... 8 Hair as Marker ......................................................................................................... 12 Hair as Object .......................................................................................................... 17 The Future of Hair Study: A Hybrid Methodology ................................................. 21 Chapter 2. COVERING JEWISH WOMEN: THE CONGREGATIONAL CONTEXT.... 30 The Four Pillars of Faith and the Major American Jewish Movements ................. 31 The Significance of Jewish Hair Covering ............................................................. 39 Chapter 3. SPLITTING HAIRS:THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMUNITY DEFINITION IN A SMALL TOWN ORTHODOX SYNAGOGUE ............................................ 47 Problem Statement and Background: Creating the Foundation - An Overview of American Orthodoxy ............................................................................. 48 Identification: Orthodoxy in Amish Country ......................................................... 54 Analysis: The Repackaging of Orthodoxy in Lancaster ........................................ 58 Implication: A Woman's Work is Never Done ...................................................... 69 Chapter 4. WEARING MANY HATS: THE HAIR COVERING PRACTICES OF THE ORTHODOX JEWISH WOMEN AT DEGEL ISRAEL SYNAGOGUE ............ 76 Problem Statement and Background: American Wig Culture ............................... 77 Identification: Hair Covering Practices at Degel Israel Synagogue ....................... 85 Analysis and Explanation: Hair and Yiddishkeit ................................................... 91 Implication: Hair and the Creation of Boundaries ................................................. 112 Chapter 5. LETTING THEIR HAIR DOWN: ORTHODOX WOMEN AT DEGEL ISRAEL SYNAGOGUE WHO CHOOSE NOT TO COVER THEIR HAIR ....... 115 Problem Statement and Background: How is Community Maintained? Testing the Concept of Adapted Acculturation at Degel Israel ............................... 116 Identification: Surveying Hair Covering Practices ................................................. 123 Analysis and Explanation: How Does Hair Covering Function as Traditional Behavior? ..................................................................................................... 129 Implication: Keeping the Flame Alive ..................................................................... 147 Chapter 6. FLIPPING THEIR WIGS FOR JUDAISM: NON-ORTHODOX WOMEN WHO CHOOSE TO COVER THEIR HEADS ....................................................... 149 Problem Statement and Background: American Jewish Head Covering Practices .. 150 v Identification: Jewish Women Who Cover Their Heads ......................................... 157 Analysis: Distinctions and Overlaps Between Head and Hair Covering ................. 161 Implication: Active Reinterpretation and Reconstruction of Ritual and Practice ..... 178 Chapter 7. THE LONG AND SHORT OF IT: A PSYCHORELIGIOUS INTERPRETATION OF HAIR COVERING ............................................................................................ 181 Problem Statement and Background: Creating a Psychoreligious Approach ......... 182 Analysis: Hair Covering as a Conscious and Subconscious Choice ....................... 186 Implication: Hair Covering and the Future of American Orthodoxy ...................... 200 Conclusion: Weaving the Fabric of American Judaism .......................................... 204 Epilogue ............................................................................................................................... 207 Appendix A: Glossary........................................................................................................... 210 Appendix B: Informants ....................................................................................................... 216 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 217 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Movements of American Judaism ...................................................................... 38 Table 2: American Jewish Geographic Distribution ........................................................ 49 Table 3: Average Birthrate ............................................................................................... 51 Table 4: American Orthodox Population .......................................................................... 52 Table 5: American Jewish Population ............................................................................... 52 Table 6: Orthodox Day School Attendance ....................................................................... 53 Table 7: American Jewish Self Identification .................................................................... 60 Table 8: Degel Israel Women Who Cover Their Hair ....................................................... 91 Table 9: Degel Israel Women Who Do Not Cover Their Hair .......................................... 128 Table 10: Women Who Cover Their Heads ....................................................................... 160 Table 11: Evolution of Hair/Head Covering ...................................................................... 171 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Sanctuary of Degel Israel Synagogue ................................................................. 70 Figure 2: Example of Orthodox Sheitel ............................................................................... 84 Figure 3: Example of Orthodox Sheitel ............................................................................... 84 Figure 4: Example of Orthodox Sheitel ............................................................................... 84 Figure 5: Example of Pre-tied Tichel .................................................................................. 87 Figure 6: Example of Pre-tied Tichel .................................................................................. 87 Figure 7: An Orthodox Snood ............................................................................................. 87 Figure 8: Collection of Hats ................................................................................................ 88 Figure 9: Example of an Untied Tichel ............................................................................... 89 Figure 10: Braided Crown Tichel Tie ................................................................................. 90 Figure 11: Braided Crown Tichel Tie ................................................................................. 90 Figure 12: Example of a Basic Tichel Tie .......................................................................... 95 Figure 13: Example of a Basic Tichel Tie .......................................................................... 95 Figure 14: Variations