Memorable and Ambiguous: the Dramaturgy of Violence in Complex Serial Drama PETER ELLIS Bachelor of Arts (Honours) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2020 College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences Creative Arts and Media Flinders University South Australia 1 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT 5 DECLARATION 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 10 INTRODUCTION 12 0.1 TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY TELEVISION: COMPLEX SERIAL DRAMA 18 0.2 THE WILLINGNESS TO ENGAGE WITH VIOLENCE AS THE CONCEPT OF THE ‘PAYOFF’ 23 0.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 25 CHAPTER ONE 29 STUDYING TELEVISION VIOLENCE 29 1.1 VIOLENCE IN THE NETWORK ERA: THE 1950S – 1970S 32 1.2 VIOLENCE AND NARRATIVE COMPLEXITY 48 CHAPTER TWO 59 THE DRAMATURGY OF VIOLENCE: VIVIDNESS IN COMPLEX SERIAL DRAMA 59 2.1 VIVID MEDIA VIOLENCE 68 2.2 VIVID VIOLENCE: GLENN RHEE’S DEATH IN THE WALKING DEAD 74 2.3 ELABORATING AND REMEMBERING VIVID INFORMATION 82 2.4 THE DRAMATURGICAL EFFECTS OF VIVID VIOLENCE IN COMPLEX SERIAL DRAMA 93 2.5 EXPERIENCING COMPLEXITY THROUGH VIVIDNESS 104 CHAPTER THREE 108 THE FORCE OF VIOLENCE: MORALLY TRANSGRESSIVE PROTAGONISTS 108 3.1 STARTING AT THE END: CHARACTER-DRIVEN VIOLENCE 112 3.2: MORALLY TRANSGRESSIVE PROTAGONISTS 120 3.3 ENGAGEMENT 131 3.4 ALLEGIANCE REVISITED: INTUITIVE RESPONSES TO CHARACTER 147 3.5: THE BIAS OF VIVID VIOLENCE IN CHARACTER ESTIMATIONS 161 3.6 VIOLENCE MADE VISIBLE 170 CHAPTER FOUR 177 3 THE STORYTELLING OF VIOLENCE: AMBIGUITY IN THE SOPRANOS 177 4.1 TONY SOPRANO AND AMBIGUITY 180 4.2 SECOND-DEGREE STYLE 202 4.3 MONSTER ANTAGONISTS AND STATEMENTS OF JUSTICE 226 4.4 MORALLY TRANSGRESSIVE PROTAGONISTS ARE ULTIMATELY AMBIGUOUS 252 4.5 MAKING CHOICES ABOUT MORALLY TRANSGRESSIVE PROTAGONISTS 273 CONCLUSION 295 IDENTIFYING WITH VIOLENCE IN COMPLEX SERIAL DRAMA 295 BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 EPISODES 299 SONGS 304 PRIMARY SOURCES 304 SECONDARY SOURCES 306 4 Abstract Content warning: This thesis contains information and descriptions about, and images depicting, graphic physical violence and sexual assault. It may be triggering for some readers and reader discretion is advised. This thesis offers an appraisal of violence depicted in twenty-first century U.S. complex serial drama that is conducted over four chapters. It employs textual analysis to evaluate the affective roles of violence in the relationship between these series and their viewers. These affective roles are contextualised by the cumulatively serialised narrative structure of complex serial drama, and its character-driven stories that focus on moral transgressions. The arguments in this thesis are informed by research aimed to identify three components of this affective relationship: how viewers engage with violence; the relationship between violence and character information; and how visual style can be used to convey ambiguous truths. Beginning with a graphic example from the ultra-violent complex serial drama, The Walking Dead, the thesis identifies the characteristics of violence that affect comprehension. These characteristics are the clarity of its depiction, how close to the violence the viewer is made to feel, and the intensity of the emotions characters express. The perception of violence affects viewer comprehension by eliciting heightened levels of cognitive attention, concentration, and interpretation, as well as easily recalled memories created through its experience. The thesis argues that these features demonstrate both the short-term and long-term affects of violence upon narrative comprehension. Complex serial drama encourages viewers to psychologically investigate protagonist characters. Textual examinations of Mad Men and Breaking Bad reveal how developing an appreciation for protagonists is essential for sustaining engagement. This appreciation informs the perception of character information communicated through violence, and the evaluation of violence influences what is subsequently noticed about character behaviour. This 5 demonstrates a feedback loop between interpreting character and interpreting violence. The thesis performs a close textual analysis of The Sopranos to demonstrate how it employs visual style to create narrative ambiguity. This ambiguity is created by the depiction of multiple conflicting, yet equally viable, truths. Violence in complex serial drama increases viewer engagement with narrative information. The ambiguity of truth restricts rational comprehension, elevating the role of personal value in accepting what is true. The arguments in this thesis contextualise depictions of violence to provide the basis for a broader understanding of the affective relationship between complex serial drama and its viewers. 6 7 Declaration I certify that this thesis: 1. does not incorporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and 2. to the best of my knowledge and belief, does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text. 8 9 Acknowledgments This thesis would have been impossible without the unyielding support of two people in particular: my partner Alice Bitmead, and my sister Jessica Ellis. It cannot be understated how influential their tireless encouragement and patient support has been, as I simply would not be submitting this thesis without it. The role that my principal supervisor, Julia Erhart, has played in getting me to the point of submission has been invaluable. Her evaluation and insight of my work throughout this project has been both challenging and deeply rewarding. In addition, Julia’s personal support has been indelible, and I extend to her my sincerest gratitude. The deft and intelligent input of my secondary supervisor Nicholas Godfrey has also been instrumental to this thesis, offering me perspectives that I would not have considered otherwise. The work of my associate supervisor Craig Taylor provided me with a basis upon which to consider many of the questions in this thesis, and for that I am extremely thankful. Finally, I thank my family and my friends, for continuing to fill my life with the same immutable value throughout this project that they always have. 10 11 Introduction There’s a beast in every man, and it stirs when you put a sword in his hand. ~Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), Game of Thrones.1 Violence has been a central storytelling feature of U.S. television drama since the 1950s. In these early days, violence was most consistently found in the Westerns and crime dramas that dominated prime-time broadcast programming. Initial bouts of violence committed by criminals would be used to build conflict, establishing their antagonism. Violent confrontations between the criminals and law enforcement protagonists would then resolve the conflict in often-fatal retribution. These depictions were broadcast in low resolution, black-and-white footage received on television screens rarely larger than fifteen inches in diameter, providing crackling audio lacking in bass. Violence in twenty-first century television drama is, in comparison, an audio-visual phenomenon. High resolution footage fills television screens so large they are frequently mounted on walls. Cutting edge technology is used to enhance how immersive the content looks and sounds, while creative direction uses visual style to emphasise its grisliest and most grotesque details. Depictions of violence in the twenty-first century create a range of vivid experiences, offering close physical and emotional proximity to crimes such as sexual assault and domestic violence, and epic orchestrations of shockingly violent mass-killings in prisons and at weddings. These visuals are supported by rich audio experiences that allow us to clearly identify every instance of blunt force trauma against the human skull, and every slice accompanying the vision of a knife slitting a throat. We no longer simply watch and hear this violence: we experience it. This thesis concerns the narrative ramifications of how we experience violence in the serialised U.S. television dramas of the twenty-first century. 1 Episode 3, Season 3. ‘Walk of Punishment’. David Benioff, D. B. Weiss (writers, creators, and showrunners), David Benioff (director). Game of Thrones. HBO. New York City, New York. Original Airdate: 14 April 2013. 12 The term I use to identify these series is Trisha Dunleavy’s definition of ‘complex serial drama’.2 Dunleavy’s definition hinges on the following four features.3 The first is that their ongoing narrative information cumulates depth and scope through serialised episodes. The second is that they are individuated by their aesthetically novel content that does not obey traditions of television genre. The third is that their stories are character-driven and pertain to protagonists whose lives are defined by morally transgressive behaviour. The fourth and final feature is the depiction of certain content, such as sex, coarse language, and violence. This is noteworthy for being more explicit than traditionally found in twentieth century television drama. I aim to contribute to this area of study by demonstrating how violence offers a unique dramaturgy in complex serial drama when experienced by engaged viewers. The series most closely analysed to demonstrate this argument are The Sopranos (1999-2007), Mad Men (2007-2015), Breaking Bad (2008-2013), and The Walking Dead (2010-present as at November 2019). The reasons that I have chosen these series relate to their recognition as among the most critically and commercially successful serialised television dramas